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hst 100

Uploaded: 2 years ago
Contributor: aruzhan.orynbay
Category: History
Type: Lecture Notes
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HST 100 History of Kazakhstan WEEK 1 (17 - 23 AUG) Introduction WEEK 2 (24 - 30 AUG) The Mongol Conquests Authority is the moral or legal right or ability to rule and control. ‘State’s legitimacy rests on the chance that people will follow its commands as a given source of power’ (Max Weber). Three forms of authority: charismatic leadership, established tradition, reason, order and law. Nomadic Pastoralism: 1. Main form of economic activity 2. Herds graze free-range without stables, year-round 3. Seasonal mobility is contained within a specific grazing territory 4. The entire population is mobile Why nomadise? Cattle breeding offer advantages over agriculture Climatic aberrations preclude raising crops effectively Domestication of horse and increased mobility Gradual process - thousands of years Pastoralist economy is not self-sufficient The source of super-tribal unity in the steppe world was the belief in Tengri conferring the right to rule on a single clan. The heavenly charisma resided in the royal clan, individual members of which could be elevated to the supreme office of the ruler, while non-members could not. Chinggis Khan even said he was ‘protected by the everlasting heaven’. The most impressive and enduring tradition of institutionalised ancestry is the Chinggisid line. Why did the empire fracture? The Mongol Empire started as a family venture Chinggis Khan’s four sons born from his first wife Borte had right for his power inheritance He allotted each of them his own ulus in line with appanage system common to nomads Appanage is a common practices in many monarchies when titles are granted to dependent members of ruling elite or vassals Ulus rulers had to obey Great Khan, but in reality, cultural assimilation, rivalry and time flow contributed to gradual increase of their independency Lateral system of succession is a custom when a best qualified candidate inherited the previous ruler’s titles and estates. Power Inheritance The Mongol Empire was the property of the Golden Clan The power inheritance limited to descendants of Chingis’s four sons Chingissids preferred to use lateral system of succession and combined it with merit-based principle The Qurultai, a council of tribal leaders, had a right to assign individuals to leadership Any direct descendant of the Chinggis Khan could potentially be the next ruler of a Khanate, especially if he had authority among others With time, the number of potential claimants for the throne and appange multiplied arousing tense competition among them Still tracing ancestry to the Golden Clan was a prerequisite for claims for power in Central Asia The Golden Horde The largest appanage had been granted by Chinggis khan to his eldest son Juchi It came into existence as a separate entity earlier and continued longer than other main uluses The core of the Golden Horde was the vast steppe stretching from the Irtysh to the Danube (?????) The Steppe Domain of the Golden Horde was divided into right (western, Aq) and left (eastern, Kok) hands The right hand was controlled by the descendants of Batu and Berke while the left one by the offspring of Hordu-Ejen, Shiban and Tuqa-Temur The fall of the Golden Horde The Black Death (killed from 75 to 200 million people) Political disruptions Successor states Local separatism The Legacy of Mongols Development of super-tribal identities Lateral succession Collective type of rule instead of one reigning family The system of appanage WEEK 3 (31 AUG - 6 SEP) The Qazaq Khanate Khan – figure at the top of the political system, in charge of the unit territory. To become a Khan, one needs to be a Chinggisid, meaning a male descendant of Chinggis Khan himself, not necessarily the son of the previous khan. Sultan (Oglan) – individual Chinggisid, who is not a Khan, but eligible to succeed to the position of Khan. Amir (Bek) – non-Chinggisid leader of the tribal population. Amirs, the tribal chiefs, held the real power, and was closest to people and commanded their respect. Amirs also played an important role in deciding who will be the next Khan and could remove the Khan from power if they did not like him for some reason. Khan were dependent upon the amirs for their own authority, and always had to negotiate with them. Starshina – Russian term used to refer to tribal chiefs, or amirs. Mongol – term that refers to Mongol ethnicity who speak Mongol language, who live a certain lifestyle and observe certain customs. Chinggisids – this term is used in the context of Qazaq Khanate to refer to the descendants of the Chinggis Khan that assimilated with Turkic population. Factors in determining succession: Seniority principle Individual merit Military capability Access to resources Charismatic authority Religious legitimacy Political Succession ? not linear, lateral seniority principle ? merit-based system ? collective rule Chinggisid Succession System: meritocratic democratic can lead to instability (competition and conflicts) !great number of claimants! Appanage System – a system common for Eurasian nomads which implies that a Khan or grants a territory to his sons or any other kinsmen for their own rule, so they can play some role in exercising power and authority by controlling their own segments of territory. Drawback: after a number of generations, once territory becomes divided up further and further, causing conflicts. Division of the Golden Horde: Batu - ‘White Horde’ Orda - ‘Blue Horde’ Shiban - ‘Gray Horde’ Methods of consolidating power: Violence (eliminate your relatives) Gain support of emirs and people Separate and seek independence Gain support of a powerful foreign patron Eponym – term used to refer to an individual after which something is named (e.g. Chinggisids). Neo-Eponymous Clan – ruling clan named after some individual who through some means simply pushed out all his other relatives and established himself as a new eponym, a new head of a new clan under his name. Özbek Khan (1313-1341) descendant of Orda an important figure in the history of the Golden Horde and the Qazaq Khanate one of the longest serving Khans of the Golden Horde very powerful figure conversion to Islam formation of the Özbek Ulus after him, the Golden Horde goes into a very long period of decline, a fragmentation and leading up to its eventual disappearance. Key events in Central Asia (14-15th centuries): Fragmentation of the khanate of Chagatai Emergence of Moghulistan Rise of Amir Timur and Timurid dynasty Tokhtamysh Khan one of the last very rulers of the Golden Horde attempts to reassemble people around himself in a same manner as Özbek Khan was defeated after a series of battles with Amir Timur after that Golden Horde again goes into a long period of decline and fragmentation to a bunch of smaller states. Moghulistan – an independent political unit, appeared as a result of a fragmentation of the Chagatai Ulus. It played an important role in the history of the Qazaq Khanate. Abu'l-Khayr Khan descendant of the Shïban Khan (son of Jochi) was elected in 1428 was a very powerful ruler, able to consolidate a power around himself from among the other constituencies within Özbek Ulus In 1459, Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan broke away from the Özbek Ulus to form a Qazaq Khanate Key events in Central Asia (15-16th centuries): Kazakh alliance with the Chagatai khan of Moghulistan against the Shibanids Shibanids abandon the steppe, conquer the Central Asia and replace Timurids Max Weber’s definition of the ‘state’: Territoriality Power Legitimace Monopoly of violence Features of Gunpowder Empires: Improved military technology Centralized administrative structures and bureaucracies Practice of linear dynastic succession Strong relationship between the state and religious institutions WEEK 4 (7 - 13 SEP) Qazaq-Russian Relations The Qazaqs and the Jungars: History of Uneasy Relations Post-Mongol Era, 14C Mongol Empire fragmented into four main pieces less than a century after the death of Chingis khan Yuan (Tuluids), Il Khanids (Persian Tuluids), Chagatai Ulus, The Golden Horde (Juchids) Reasons: huge distance between the different parts of the Empire, discords, appanage system Post-Mongol Era, 15-16C Ongoing fragmentation with even much smaller ulysses Oirats Mentioned in 13C in the Mongol history Counted as ‘forest people’ by Juchi Consisted of 4 major tribes: Jungar (Choros), Torgut, Dorbet and Khoshuto Original name – Dorben Oirats (The Four Oirats) Rise of Esen Taiji and the House Choros: Under Esen-taishi ? Tumu Episode ? frontier conflict between Oirats and Chinese Ming dynasty ? capture of Chinese emperor (01.09.1449) The Oirat alliance grew stronger in the early 15th century expanding to Altay mountains. The tribe Choros (Junghar) took a leading role in Oirat confederation. In 1454, Esen-taishi proclaimed himself The Great Mongol Khan Illegal from the viewpoint of the majority of Mongols and Oirats No paternal relationship with Chinggisids The dissatisfaction eventually had led to assignation of Esen in 1455 and overall decline of the Oirats. The Oirats pressed by the Eastern Mongols, late 16C: The first collision of the Oirats and the Qazaqs took place in 1152 when the Qazaqs under Tauekel Khan had raided Oirat territories and the latter chased the offenders up to Tashkent. What Makes Nomads Happy? Good pastures Booty: livestock and people Control over low-income (sedentary) economies Control over trade routes Cities as trade and crafts centers House Choros inventing the Tradition: Genealogical myth of sacred ancestry Finding legitimacy in Tibetan Buddhism Galdan Boshktu assuming Khan’s dignity: Investiture – action of formally investing a person with honors or ranks; installation of individuals to power by authority or institutes which claim right (usually religious) for such a function Jungar Ruling Elite: Khan – the highest position Zargo – middle position (zaisangs, tusimeds, zarghuchids) - analogue of Qurultai Noyons (Amirs) Rulers of Jungar Khanate: Khara-Khula – Taiji – 1643 Baatur – Hungtaiji – 1634-1653 Galdan Boshoktu – Khan – 1670-1697 Tsewang-Rabdan – Khan – 1694-1727 Galdan-Tseren – Hungtaiji - 1727-1745 Split of the Oirats in the 17C: The Jungar Khanate divided into Volga Kalmyk Khanate ? Khoshut Dynasty of Tibet ? Khoshut Dynasty of Kokonor Zaya Pandita: reinforcement of Buddhist identity of the Junghars Junghar unity invention of the distinct Oirat script development of bureaucracy improved internal administration Rise of the Jungar Khanate key events: Khara-Khula – negotiated successfully with Russians about resources of trade, agriculture and population Batur Hungtaiji – agreement with eastern Mongols, new unified legal code, expansion of Khanate to Zhetysu Galdan Boshoktu – as a Khan he became a ruler of Jungar khanate, invaded and occupied eastern Turekstan, diversified economy Tsewang-Rabdan – promoted agriculture, craft and trade, expands the khanate at the expense of the Qazaqs Galdan-Tseren – continued expansion toward Qazaq steppes and towns of Syrdarya, dominated over Senior and Middle juzes Artillery and Cartography: Johan G. Renat and Galdan Tseren’s map – combines traditions of Mongol, Chinese and European cartography Junghars: ? built an empire with diversified economy and effective system of taxation ? quickly adopted technologies from their neighbors from paper and velvet production to metal factories and armories ? established cities and developed bureaucracy based on Oirat script But: ? remained nomadic empire in its nature ? primary motivation was extracting resources from their subjects, both sedentary and nomadic ? furiously competed over resources with Russia and Qing China ? inherited all deficiencies of Chinggisid’s power succession system Jungar-Qazaq Wars 16-18C Key events: Galdan Boshoktu Khan gained control over Sairam, Tashkent, Shymkent and Taraz Kurultai in Karaku in 1710 ? Bogenbay Batyr defeated Jungars BUT failed to retake cities 1718-1726: Jungars went deeper into Qazaq lands 1730: unity of Qazaq ? Bulanty and Anyraqai battle ? no consolidation of victory (make stronger) Advantages of the Junghar army over the Qazaqs: better equipped, trained, prepared and surpassed the Qazaqs technologically Reason for the success of the Qazaqs in repelling the Junghars: Junghar artillery was ineffective in the Steppe decentralized political organization of the Qazaqs three Juz system allowed flexibility to the Qazaq political and administrative organization always centralized state apparatus of the Junghars made the Khanate vulnerable to political crisis Junghar Khanate was completely destroyed by 1759 dynastic crisis severe civil strife invasion of the Qing troops a new province of Xinjiang a series of draughts and floods that destroyed crops in the Khanate devastating smallpox epidemics the Qing Empire moved close to the Qazaq territories and totally reconfigured the political situation in the region. Crisis of succession key events: After Galdan Tseren death in 1745 Jungars experienced crisis of succession Khans failed to consolidate their power ? noyons question their authority Sultan Ablai manipulates rivalry within the Jungar elite Metal factories and armory decline Some Jungar noyons appeal to Qing China The Qazaqs and the Russian Empire in the Early 18th Century In the course of the 17th century the Qazaqs split into three zhuzes: some tribes from the Manghit/Nogay horde (The Jeti-ru) joined what would become the Junior Zhuz; some Moghul tribes from Eastern Turkistan (Dughlat, Jalayir) joined the Senior Zhuz (more plausible) it came about because only the Senior Zhuz controlled cities in the Syr-Darya Valley it was a response to attacks by the Zhungars With the introduction of firearms and artillery, the “nomadic advantage” in military technology and tactics came to the END. Political authority among the Qazaqs became more fragmented within the Qazaq Zhuzes khans were at least partly controlled by the powerful Chinggisid aristocratic class, the Aqsuyek some khans saw relationships with external powers as a means of strengthening their own authority The ‘submission’ of Abu’l-Khayr Khan 1731: It has been taken as the date when Qazaqs became Russian subjects Describes as ‘voluntary annexation of the Qazaqs with Russia’ Why did Abu'l-Khayr Khan request protection from Anna Ioannovna? Because of conflicts with the Bashkirs Because of Jungars Because of inner politics in Qazaq Juzes Who was Tevkelev? Murza Qutlu-Muhammad Tevkelev came from Tatar lineages in the Russian Empire He was a Muslim whole his life He was a translator at the College of Foreign Affairs He could cross cultural and political borders and facilitate cross-cultural contact Reasons for submission: Qazaq Khans are not independent or not autocratic Qazaq Khans are not hereditary Abu’l-Khayr Khan himself does not come from senior Chinggisid lineage Orenburg Expedition 1734: Dispatched by Anna Ioanovna in response to Abu’l-Khayr’s ‘submission’ Aim: secure Russian control over the Bashkirs (many were in open rebellion for 1730s) Was led by Ivan Kirilov together with Tevkelev and Abu’l-Khayr’s son Erali It had large military force ? they constructed fortress, roads and mines/metallurgical factories John Castle’s Journal (1736-1737) ? Anglo-German adventurer who attached himself Governor Kirilov’s suite ? managed to get himself sent on a semi-official embassy to Abu’l-Khayr Khan in 1736 ? his journal, published in German some 50 years later, is one of the only eyewitness sources of life in the Junior Zhuz at this time available, and an important complement to Tevkelev’s writings Ablai Khan and The Russians ? requested Russian recognition of his title of ‘Khan’ in 1778, towards end of his life, but it came after many years in which Ablai had refused to accept it ? however, he already used the title of Khan, partly because he had received in from the Qing, but also because he had been enthroned within the Middle Zhuz The process of the Russian Conquest of the Qazaqs starts at 1731 and lasts for over a hundred years, up until the 1860s. Mercantilism: economic theory that trade generates wealth, shipping raw resources from colonies to metropole Cameralism: science of kammer (administration). Increase wealth by systematically surveying the resources of your country ? mining is central WEEK 5 (14 - 20 SEP) Qazaq-Qing Relations Qing China crashed the Jungars in 1755-59 and occupied the territories of the Khanate and became immediate neighbours of the Qazaqs. In contrast to popular view, the Jungars were defeated and massacred not by Chinese, but by their fellow Mongols under leadership of the Manchus, another Central Asian nomadic people. The Qing Empire had been built by the Manchus, in alliance with Eastern Mongols they managed to conquer China and establish a new dynasty. The Qazaqs had to adopt an ambiguous strategy between Russia and China in order to preserve their independence and if possible gain benefits. There is a vast documentation of the Qazaq-Qing relations in Manchu, Oirat, Chagatai and Chinese, as the Qing Empire was a heavily bureaucratized state. It consists of many edicts, decrees, orders, bylaws, correspondences, accounts and descriptions. The letters of the Qazaq notables dispatched to their Qing counterparts are written in two different writing systems: vertically oriented Tod Bichig (in Oirat language) and Chagatai – Turki. Russians were carefully following the developments in the sphere of the Qazaq-Chinese relations and thus, various Russian reports and surveys are indispensable. All incoming letters from the Qazaqs were rottenly translated from Oirat or Qazaq languages into Manchu and Chinese. Han China and Wusun in the 2nd-1st cc. BCE: Chinese first came into contact with the qazaqs in 2C BC. Han emperors maintained alliance with the Wusun people against Xiongnu Later history of Chinese influence in Central Asia and Qazaq steppes is closely related to the Chinese presence in Western Region, Chinese Xiyu Silk Road During Western Jin, Former Liang, Former Qin, Later Liang, Western Liang, Northern Liang and Tang dynasties Chinese led active policy in the region Reason: Chinese efforts to set their control over most of the lucrative trade routes (Silk Road) At the height of Chinese might in Western region they sought to extend their influence in the adjacent parts of Central Asia and Qazaq steppes, but these periods were followed by the time of Chinese decline and withdrawal from the area Who were the Manchus? The Manchus are a branch of Tungusic peoples which inhabited the territories of the north-western corner of today’s China They were united in the early 17C by one of their chieftains Nurhaci and his son Hongtaiji adopting a new name Manchu In 1636, Hongtaiji proclaimed a Qing dynasty, and taking advantage of a civil strife broken out in China, seized the Chinese capital Beijing in 1644 It took another 50 years to suppress the rebellions in Mainland China and establish control over the Southern and Eastern Mongols The Manchus and the Mongols Neighbored and had ancient ties The time the Macnhus were rising to power, the Mongols remained in the state of disunity Taking advantage of it, the Manchus succeeded in drawing many Mongols to their side and destroyed rival Mongol Chinggisid khan in 1634 seizing the official Yuan seal This gave the Manchus the right to claim their inheritance of the Mongol Yuan dynasty The Manchus later actively used the Mongol troops to conquer the Mainland China and the territories in the Central Eurasia In fact, most of the troops that were smashing Junghar khanate were Mongols The Qing Banner System The Manchus organised their Mongol subjects into the banner system, a military-type super-tribal units created for protection of the frontier zones and spread of the empire The Manchus adopted the Mongol script, converted to Tibetian Buddhism trying in this way to gain another effective tool for rendering their influence on the Mongols The Qing Empire in 1820 Cherishing their Eurasian roots, the Manchus slowly sinicized This process accelerated after 1800, paralleling with gradual decline of Qing By the end of 18C, the Manchus were able to get Mongolia, Tibet and Eastern Turkestan under their sway, expanding the territories of the Ming almost three times Russia’s Pressure Russia was interested in maintaining status quo in the region apprehending direct military conflict with the Qing As for the Manchus, they feared potential alliance of the Junghars with the Russians, and did their best to destroy the khanate After reaching this goal, the Manchus got involved in a protracted diplomatic game in Central Asia and qazaq steppes By the mid 19C, the technological superiority of Russia over decaying Qing became too obvious, and this have led to Kulja and Aigun treaties which settled the relations between two powers in the West and allowed Russia to annex some territories in the East The Issue of Amursana Almost simultaneously with taking the Jungar territories under their control in 1760s, the Manchus began to negotiate with the leading Qazaq chieftains of the Senior and Middle Zhuzes. The reason was the issue of the Amursana, the Jungar insurgent who raised an unsuccessful revolt against the Manchus. Amursana sought refuge among the Qazaqs of the Senior Zhuz and thus, the Manchus demanded the Qazaqs to surrender the fugitive insurgent The Qazaqs, and particularly Ablai sultan, who befriended Amursana from the time of his Jungar captivity, refused and nearly provoked the large-scale conflict Avoiding a new war with the Qazaqs, and then very likely with the Russians Manchus retreated and reconsidered their strategy. Border Issues The Qazaq fugitives to Chinese sides Some groups of the Qazaqs were eager to occupy pastures in Jetisu, previously conquered by the Jungars. Manchus claimed this territory on the grounds of their continuity to the Jungar Khanate but did not oppose the Qazaq migration provided newcomers except Qing subjecthood. This in turn raised protests of the Qazaq notables. Two Power Strategies Dealing with the Qazaqs, Manchus ignored a special interest of Russia in the region and considered the Qazaqs as their outer vassals. Manchus deliberately avoided using Han Chinese political concept of “barbarous vassal”, this model was based on the old confusion idea of undisputable cultural superiority of China over its backward barbarous neighbors and attracted them with the might and spender. The Manchus preferred to utilize the Mongol categories of “Ejen and Albatu” (leader and servant) that put the participants on a culturally equal level emphasizing the idea of political and military rather than cultural superiority of China. This model was previously successfully tested by the Manchus in their relations with Eastern Mongols and now facilitated the cooperation of the Qazaqs and the other Central Asians. When the Qing state power found stability in Central Asia in late 18th century the relationships slowly drifted back to the classical Chinese model sharing Central Eurasian political culture based on genealogy ascending to Chinggis Khan, Manchus realized the potential of title recognition. Title Bestowal As early as 1757 two Qazaq Middle Zhuz leaders Ablai and Abulfeiz agreed to become vassals of the Qing in exchange of recognition of their Khan dignity. The Qing Emperor agreed to recognize the aforementioned sultans as khans being aware of Russia’s refusal to do so. By doing so they forced Russians to do the same. By the 18th century the Qazaq sultans actively sought for additional recognition from great neighboring powers. What in Return? Chinese increased superiority, even though symbolic one, over the Qazaqs. In the turn of title recognition, the Qazaqs were supposed to pay tributes and dispatch hostages to the Qing Emperor, up staying from ravaging the other Qing dependents, and participating in Qing military campaigns upon calling. However, tribute paying was symbolic and the Qazaq khans did not have to bring it personally to the Qing courts, Manchus invariably sent the Qazaq hostages back home, as for the participation in military campaigns the Qazaqs ignored a few Qing requests to render assistance to the Manchus. The Qazaqs enjoyed several privileges given to them by the Qing administration, recognition of dignity, bestowal of aristocratic hats and costumes, lavish salary and the right for direct duty-free trade relations. Most importantly, relations with the Qing Emperor gave the Qazaq notables an effective tool in dealings with Russia. Fearing that the hardline in their policy toward the Qazaqs may push them into the arms of the Manchus, the Russians had to make important concessions, they had to recognize the Khan dignity of a few Kazakh rulers. Soft Policy of China The Qing administrator preferred not to meddle in internal affairs of their Qazaq vassals, their way of life, social structure, economy etc. Their demands mostly concerned symbolic sphere, this loose policy was considered optimal for the early stage of the Qazaq integration into the Empire. Direct Qazaq-Qing relations forced the Russians to change the policy towards the Qazaqs who were swiftly leaving the sphere of Russian influence. In the 1770s, the Russians had to recognize the Khan’s dignity of Nuraly of Junior Zhuz and Ablai and their offspring with all due privileges. Russians Take Control Russian authorities, unlike their Chinese counterparts, whenever satisfied with this symbolic power, pursuing more tangible and energetic policy in the Qazaq Steppe, they constructed the chain of forts, roads, and trade routes. Russians served as arbiters in the conflicts between the Qazaq notables and never hesitated to meddle in the internal affairs of the Qazaqs, both secular and religious. In 1823, the case of Gubaidulla, a sultan of the Middle Zhuz, marks the moment when the Russians started resolute actions to force the Qazaq nobility to completely cut any contacts with their Qing curatives. The Factor of Religion Manchus were seen as infidels by the Muslim population of the Central Asia and Xinjiang. Religious factors played a significant role in Uyghur and Dungan uprisings in Xinjiang and brutally suppressed by Qing troops. For the period of the 18th – early 20th century Uyghurs and Han-Muslims participated in 400 rebellions. Revolts were the outcomes of multiple mistakes in colonization of the Xinjiang, poor administration, aggressive resettlement campaign and entire Muslim attitudes of local Qing officials. Qing Empire underestimated religious factor and never seriously tried to use Islam to reinforce their regime like the Russians did. Fading Chinese Influence By the mid-19th century Qing China entered a protracted period of heavy crisis, the Manchus failed to modernize their administration and army. The Qing domination over Central Asia was Challenged by Russian and British Empires. Manchus chose to withdraw from the Qazaq Steppe under Russian pressure and in view of inextinguishable uprisings in Xinjiang. Officially withdrawal was secured by the unequal treaty of Kulja under which China had to open the towns of Kulja and Chuguchak to Russian trade. Yet, Qing authorities continued to bestow titles upon Qazaq notables until the early 20th century but then this practice ceased forever. Outcomes Avoiding open military conflicts, the Qing and Romanovs’ involved into a diplomatic game with the Qazaqs as key participants. The Qazaqs used their intermediate position to extract profit from Russo-Chinese trade and elevate their political status and influence in the region. The Russians had to make the concessions especially in recognition of the Khan status of the Qazaq rulers, but simultaneously increased their influence among the Qazaqs through construction of the fortification lines in the Steppe and serving as arbiters in the disputes among Qazaq nobility. The Manchus, in contrast, preferred to limit their policy exclusively to the sphere of symbols rather than real authority. By the mid-19th century China emerged into a heavy political crisis that increased its lagging behind Russia both technologically and politically. This opened an avenue to the Russians to establish full control over the Qazaqs and other Central Asian peoples. Ablai Khan and the Middle Zhuz Of all the kazakh leaders of this period, Ablai Khan is the most best-remembered, charismatic and effective leader Traditional reputation as a warrior and diplomat Refused the title of Khan from Russians but later asked for its confirmation Bukhar - Zhyrau - Khan’s advisor Key Events: 1453: the Turks conquered Constantinople, the capital of Orthodox Christianity. 1510: the monk Filofei declared Moscow the “Third Rome” (at that time, Moscow was independent, not islam-based). 16th century: Ivan Grozny started the expansion of Russia. 1552, 1556: conquests of Kazan and Astrakhan, respectively. 16th - 18th cc.: mosques were periodically destroyed and Muslim subjects were pressured through taxation to convert to Orthodox Christianity. 1721: Peter I declared Russia to be an “empire”; his goal was to reduce Orthodox authority in Russia (he started the internal and external division of Europe and Asia). 1745: Catherine II “The Great” married Peter III. 1762: Catherine got the whole power and was supported by elite guards regiments. 1764: Catherine confiscated much of the Church’s land (part of Church reform). 1767: Catherine published her version for Russia in the Enlightenment-inspired “Great Instruction”. 1768-71: Apanaev Mosque was built in Kazan. 1770: Catherine set a bunch of new laws in her “Nakaz” but the laws were not applied. 1773: Pallas published his ethnographical observations about the Qazaq Steppe. 1773: Holy Synod issued “Edict of Toleration of all Faiths” (Church Reform). 1773-74: Pugachev’s Rebellion. 1786: the Orenburg frontier commission was established. 1822: Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah (Orta juz) by Speranskii People: Catherine the Great - Russian empress who married Peter III and later betrayed him to gain power; she was strongly influenced by the Enlightenment and started the Church reform and further Islam toleration. Tatischev - governor of Orenburg in 1730’s; historian and geographer who came up with the division of Europe and Asia. Scott Levi - argued that the fact that Russia dominated over the northern regions of the steppe stimulated caravan trade. Yemelyan Pugachev - leader of the rebellion in 1773-74 who claimed to be tsar Peter III. Mikhail Speranskii - author of the Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah. Places: Kazan - where Apanaev Mosque was built. Orenburg, Troitsk, Petropavlovsk, Semipalatinsk - trading centers, terminal points for caravans. Definitions: The Enlightenment - the movement which main aspect was reliance on human reason and inductive method (scientific observation and classification of the world); it had a strong influence on Catherine II “Great Instruction” - a publishment by Catherine II which main point was Enlightened absolutism. Church reform - series of actions by Catherine II by which she tried to use religion as a tool in order to strengthen her power. The Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly - was founded by Catherine II to administer Islam among the Tatars and Bashkirs. Orenburg Frontier Commission - was established as an administrative organ for Kazakhs beyond the frontier line. Barimta - method of resolving disputes which was implemented when the result of the previous conflict wasn’t applicable, so it was the only way to avenge yourself; for the traditional Kazakh system, it did fit, but for Russians it was a crime. Menovoi Dvor - the caravanserai for traders built outside Orenburg. Pugachev Rebellion - the rebellion that meant for Kazakhs the breakdown of Russian Imperial authority and an opportunity to get the pastures of Kalmyks and Bashkirs. Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah - was written by Speransky; meant an official abolishment of the khan power and caused a conflict between the traditional Kazakh law and Russian law. WEEK 6 (21 - 27 SEP) The Speransky Reforms and the Kenesary Rebellion Mikhail Speranskii - author of the Ustav o Sibirskih Kirgizah. Barymta – a method to resolve disputes or perceived wrongdoing, personal fault method of resolving disputes which was implemented when the result of the previous conflict wasn’t applicable, so it was the only way to avenge yourself; for the traditional Kazakh system, it did fit, but for Russians it was a crime. Zakat - an annual tax, constituting a conditional obligation on all Muslims, amounting to a one-fortieth levy on income or produce. Generally the tax was earmarked for charitable purposes. a form of alms-giving treated in Islam as a religious obligation or tax, which, by Quranic ranking, is next after prayer (salat) in importance. Southern neighbors By the early 19th century the Qazaq Steppe was bounded to the south by three sedentary states: 1.The Emirate of Bukhara, ruled by the Uzbek Manghit Dynasty since 1740s 2. The Khanate of Kokand, ruled by the Uzbek Ming Dynasty since 1799 3. The Khanate of Khiva, ruled by the Uzbek Qonghrat Dynasty since 1806 None of the rulers were Chinggisids (though the Ming and Qonghrat dynasties claimed to be Chinggisid descents) Khiva and Khoqand intervened heavily in steppe politics, and both had territorial ambitions in the Syr-Darya Valley The Politics of Expansion on the Steppe Khivan and Khoqandi expansion was partly motivated by traditional concerns for acquiring territory, subjects and tax revenues and partly by a desire to control trade routes to Russia, which were of growing economic importance They met sporadic resistance from the Qazaqs, many of whom served or allied with the two khanates, and who were politically disunited Their expansion was also facilitated by Russia’s preoccupation with the war against Napoleon until 1815, and with the Caucasus frontier and relations with Qajar Iran and Ottoman Turkey thereafter By the 1830s, however, Russians attention to the steppe once again – Russian officials viewed Khoqandi and Khivan ‘interference’ with Qazaqs whom they claimed as their subjects as an affront to their sovereignty The Qazaq Response ? there was no unified Qazaq response to Russian and Khoqandi encroachments on the steppe from the North and South ? some Qazaqs served Khoqand – some voluntarily moved to the Russian territory to form the Bukey Horde, others played a vital role in the organization of the Khiva expedition ? however, the Russians would encounter resistance from at least one Qazaq leader – Sultan Kenesary Kasimov Kenesary Kasimov he was a grandson of Ablai Khan, and claimed first the Khanship of the Middle Horde, and then that of the Qazaqs as a whole his movement was described as a ‘rebellion’ by the Russians, and a ‘national-liberation movement’ in early Soviet and modern Qazaq historiography neither of these descriptions is accurate – Kenesary was not a Russian subject, and the territory he claimed was not under Russian sovereignty in any meaningful sense, so his movement can hardly be described as a ‘rebellion’ as many Qazaqs refused to recognize his authority, or fought with the Russians against him, his movement was also not ‘national’ in the modern sense Indirect Rule – controlling territory through a ‘resident’ at court, often taking a portion of the tax revenues than annexing the territory directly In the early 19th century Russians used Qazaq khans and Sultans in a similar way, providing them with titles and symbols of rule, such as seals of office. The best example was the Bukey Horde (Astrakhan) Towards more direct administration Bukey khan died in 1817 and was succeeded by his son Jahangir. After his death in 1845 no new Khans were confirmed for the Bukey Horde, though it survived as an administrative unit until 1852 No new Khans of the Junior Zhuz were appointed after Shir Ghazi Khan in 1824 1822 saw the abolition of the Khanship of the Middle Zhuz, which had been based in Petropavlovsk The Chinggisid nobility still played an important role in Russian administration, but increasingly they were much more firmly subordinated to the control of Russian officials. The Speransky Reforms as a part of a wider set of reforms of the administration of the Western Siberia, in the Russian statesman Mikhail Speranskii introduced a new set of ‘regulation for the Siberian Kirgiz’ this formalized the status of the Qazaqs as Russian subjects, and created a formal administrative structure of ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ okrugs and a hierarchy under Chinggisid Sultans Administration Aul ruled by the Elder [Starshina, elected every 3 years] ? Volost’ ruled by Volost’ Sultan [Chinggisid, hereditary, exceptionally elected, Russian officer] ? Okrug ruled by Starshii Sultan [also Chinggisid, Russian officer (chinovnik) and after 9 years of service can receive a Russian title of nobility] || Prikaz – main administrative center in the steppe, [administrative structure consisted of 2 appointed Russians, 2 elected Qazaqs, 1 Starshii Sultan and occasionally involves local the Cossack commander] The ‘Siberian Kirgiz’ = Middle Zhuz Qazaqs The Qazaq Customary Law the Ustav said a little about the role of customary law and the Bii, although it clearly envisaged a role for them beneath the new administrative and judicial structures it had created in practice little seems to have changed in the practice of customary law before 1860s but several attempts were made between the 1820s and the 1850s to codify Kazakh customary law in 1824 a commission met in Omsk for the purpose of noting down and codifying Qazaq Customary Law; five sultans attended the commission to provide information – the ‘code’ they produced has been widely used by scholars, but was never enforced across the Steppe four attempts at codification were made in the 1840s and 1850s, but none was successful Speransky Reforms regulated mobility of the Qazaqs in the Steppe. The ‘Orenburg Kirgiz’ = Junior Zhuz Qazaqs 1824, ‘?????? ?? ???????????? ????????’ Until 1831: Orenburg Governor General nominates the Sultan-pravitel’ (west, centre and east) Border commission had joint authority over 3 Sultan-pravitel’ and consisted of President, 4 councilors, 4 Qazaq representatives In 1831, Distantsii (eq. to okrug) start being organized for the Qazaqs who live closer to the ‘Line’, each distantsii has certain number of Starshinas underneath his authority After 1839: the distantsii system expands, to include 54 distantsii in the mid-century, each of them divided in mestnosti or auls Kenesary’s Revolt: Kenesary attempted to create an alternative power center in the Qazaq steppe (state-building). Core support: clans disgruntled by Russian policies, Khoqand expansion Legitimization Chinggisid + “Ablay-id” Islamic Attempts to gain recognition among the Qazaqs, from Russia, and from the Kyrgyz Income sources: taxation/tribute/extortion/pillage Technologies of rule: ? partly imported from successful neighbors, e.g. the systematization of taxation ? military technology ? some reliance on firearms (obtained with Bukharan, sometimes Khivan, help) ? exploiting the residual ‘nomadic advantage’ (hide-and-seek) ? ‘modern’ army structure ? attention to logistics (grain supply) Kenesary’s aims: recognition of his title of Khan resistance to Russian Expansion access to Pastures feuds with other Qazaq clans Long-term effects of the ‘Revolt’ Kenesary was killed in 1847 if his main aim was to revive the authority of his grandfather Ablai, and re-create nomadic steppe confederation, then it ended in failure with an excuse to suppress Kenesary more fortresses were built much deeper in the steppe than ever before Legacy: the main leader of resistance to Russia Historical advantages of oral sources about rebellion: Authors are nation They were composed during and after the rebellion The authors are those who participated in rebellion Their usage as historical sources for Kenessary’s rebellion Better view about Kenessary’s personality The illustration of kazakh nation’s situation Historical drawbacks of oral sources about rebellion: Dominance of epical traditions Diversity There is no exact chronological order Subjectivity Based on needs of a particular social group WEEK 7 (28 SEP - 4 OCT) Islam on the Qazaq Steppe Islam Islam represented not only a religion, a belief, but also a most technologically and economically developed civilization, Islam represented a superior way of life. Silk Road Nomadic people weren’t ever really economically independent, and depended a lot on trade. Silk road wasn’t only about the exchange of goods, but of cultures and ideas (including Islam) Therefore, Islam was spread in Kazakhstan not through Holy War, not through coercion (which would be bad, as non-Muslims pay more taxes, therefore more Muslims ->less tax) Islam spread in Kazakhstan steppe through an economic reason, through cultural exchange, Silk Road for political and economic reasons. Volga Bulghars Tribe on the Kazakh Steppe, who wanted a military alliance with Baghdad King (Arabs), and Arabs agreed only if the Volga Bulghars would convert to Islam. So, the Volga Bulghars agreed to convert, and people like Ibn Fadlan were sent to them to teach Islam to the population. Ibn Fadlan Ibn Fadlan was an Arabic traveler and writer, who wrote about his voyages and the people he met on his journey He was biased towards the belief of the Turkic people, as he has written that their belief in Allah is insincere and they have only converted to Islam for economic benefits. His voyage’s main goal was to go to the Western Steppe and teach the Volga Bulghars about Islam. He has written one of the first accounts not only about the “Rus,” but also one of the first accounts regarding Islam in the Steppe. Satuq Bughra Khan turkik ruler of Karakhanids converted to Islam and turned Kazakhanids as 1st muslim dynasty Adopted from Samanids. Makhmud-al-Kashghari wrote the first Turkic dictionary stated that in order to be blessed by Allah, one must learn Turkish Arrival of the Islam to the Qazaq Steppe despite the fact that Arab Muslim armies conquered Central Asian region, Islam did not come to the Qazaq Steppe as a result of military conquest ? it was economically beneficial for the Arab governors of the conquered territories to encourage people not to convert to Islam as long as they can collect special taxes from non-Muslims there is no any general evidence that Arabs attempted to convert population to Islam ? Arab armies never actually conquered the Qazaq Steppe: they reached a city of Taraz, and their army did not progress further Islam did not arrive into the Qazaq Steppe as a result of missionary activities ? Ahmad Yasawi was not involved in any missionary activity Islam came to the Steppe as a result of economic activity, or trade ? Central Asians were very active participants of the trade along The Silk Road, both as a producers and a as market ? there were a lot of trade routes along The Silk Road not only from west to east, but also from south to north; The Silk Road is not actually a single road but a grid ? physical products were not the only thing that was exchanged along The Silk Road, but also the ideas, including religious ideas many of the traders themselves were religious people ? Turkic people practiced various religions before the arrival of the Islam ? three main regions of trade between Muslims and Turks of the steppe: Khwarezm, Volga – Ural rivers, and cities along Syr-Darya rivers (also, Talas and Chu rivers) Islam and the Mongol Conquest Mongols had very destructive impact to the Muslim world, destroyed many Muslim cities. Mongols did not have a particular animosity toward Islam and they were equally violent to all religions on the course of the conquest Mongols did not show any interest in trying to convert others to their own religion their policy was religion tolerant as long as one offered submission to them and paid taxes they relied upon Persian Muslims to help with administration. Mongols did not have administration and bureaucracy, so administers were muslims. Mongols had a practice to shuffle administrative people around, so Islam people were everywhere. A very large part of the Mongol military wasn’t Mongol, people had preexisting tribal divisions so they were separated. Every military unit had tribal and national mixtures the process of conversion to Islam had bottom-up model (from mongol military and troops) Top down conversion – when khan, sultans and so on convert to islam and rest of the people also Islamization was one of the factors of the division of the Mongol elite Islam was one of the tools to legitimize the authority Berke Khan first Mongol ruler to convert to Islam c.1257 (enormous amount of opposition torques him from other mongols), but after his death successors were not Muslim and return to traditional religion. He decided to produce coins with arabic font on it, so it is one of the evidences that he converted to Islam Ozbek Khan and conversion to Islam in Golden Horde Conversion of Ozbek Khan c.1313 definitively established the Golden Horde as a Muslim polity. One of the main reasons why he was influential rulers of Golden Horde was precisely because of his conversion to Islam. Islam had a long-standing presence within Golden Horde territory going back to the 10 th century. A great deal of muslim influence among a broader population there and by this time especially within mongol military. His conversion brought mongol rulers much closer to this broader population. Even though it certainly gathers a lot of opposition from among other members of mongol elite population. It would have a great deal of support from among the broader population. That would allow Ozbek khan to establish his own independent base of support. This is probably the reason why after him, so many of a muslim people of Golden Horde came to be known as Ozbek ulus as people of ozbek. Work of Otemish Hajji 1550c. written in Chaghatay Turkish for the Uzbek ruler Dust Sultan Khan in Khorezm Provides a legendary account of the conversion of Ozbek Khan by a Sufi saint named Baba Tukles. Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde. Account edited and translated as part of a major study by Devin DeWeese (1994) Conversion of not only a single person. Establishment of the ozbek nation. From Ozbek people emerged Kazakh khanate. Historical part of Uzbek ulus including kazakhs. Islam among the Qazaqs before the 19 th century ? According to many, the nomad Qazaqs were bad Muslims, as they did not follow the traditions correctly. It is not possible to be muslim and nomad at the same time due to need to have namaz 5 times, pray in the Mosque. They were thought to disrespect Islam and to think of it as unimportant. ? As Islam emerged from a sedentary within the urban environment, and some traditions such as Namaz required a sedentary setting – or a ritual of cleansing which requires water, therefore being a Muslim nomad was considered impossible ? Islam was extremely important to Kazakhs – their traditions were simply a little different, had a personal approach to Islam. It can be interpreted in many ways – the ritual of cleansing “Wudu” actually allows people to use sand, or in some instances, the rock instead of water. ? Dughlat, Amir Wali – not Kazakh, but wrote about them very diplomatically and with Islamic references, which shows that Kazakhs were muslims. ? No sources by Kazakhs, but presence of genealogical trees – shezhire – which are important because some of them show connection of prorok Muhammad with, for example, Yassaui – shows significance of Islam for kazakhs, that connection with Islamic main figures gives ruling capacity Islam under the Qarakhanids Kara Khanids the first Turkic state, political unit, to adopt Islam as the official religion. They have turned to Islam for two reasons: (1) trade, and (2) political benefit of befriending developed Muslim States. They referred to Islam as the source of legitimacy, of religious legitimacy. Conversion to Islam introduced turkic people to wide auditory. Qarakhanids legitimized themselves using the resource of Muhammed. Legitimacy - appeal to religious authority. Islam on the Qazaq Steppe under Russian rule Golden Horde was disintegrated into several khanates: Kazan, Nogay, Astrakhan, Siberian and Krimerian at the 15 th c. grand principality of Moscow consolidated its power and began gradually conquering these muslim states one after another. A historian of the Russian empire holds these 16 century conquering states of muslim states as the gathering of muslim lands since it’s resembles the gathering Russian lands that mostly completed by conquering Russian principalities in the 15 th century. Under Ivan the Terrible there were a lot strict feelings towards Islam: mosques were burnt, some were forced to convert to Christianity, one had to be Christian to enter state services. The decisive step was taken by Ivan the Terrible when Moscow taken advantage of the conflicts among power factors in the Kazan khanate conquered the first muslim khanates in 1552 this conquest was followed by taken Astrakhan khanate in 1556. After the conquest of the Kazan, which was accompanied by the destruction of mosques, tatar mobility was given an option to convert to Christianity. Some members of tatar mobility would accept the Russian service. Much of the tatar mobility would remain loyal to the religion and community although at the expense of losing the mobility statues, lands and privileges. The ordinary muslim population was also encouraged to convert and baptized through economic other centers such as taxes or convert by force. Adat – mongol law, shariat – Islamic, religious law. These two laws were mixed up by Kazakhs. Adat – customary law, without generic traditions, but not an Islamic law, should not be religious. Ivan the terrible – conquest of the Golden Horde. Initially harsh policy – discrimination of muslims (to work on higher levels they needed to be Christians). Enlightenment and absolutism ? 18th century intellectual, political and social movement in Europe ? Revolutionary thinkers like Voltaire, Descartes, Montesquieu, Spinoza challenged the religious and monarchical rule ? New ideas about freedom, tolerance, progress and especially liberal governance began to form ? Belief in rationalism, the people in a people-oriented government and a reliance on science rather than religion ? Enlightened absolutism is basically the belief in enlightenment-era rationality and the concern for social problems, but intermixed with the belief in an absolute monarchy or despotism ? Rulers such as Catherine 2, Frederik the Great, concern about education, health, legal order, individual rights and tolerance ? Rather than finding their authority in religious autocracy, these rulers looked thinkers like Montesquieu, Voltaire and Hobbes Catherine the Great Russian empress who married Peter III and later betrayed him to gain power she was strongly influenced by the Enlightenment started the Church reform + further Islam toleration. Reforms of Catherine II. Russian steppe policy of institutionalization of Islam The “Edict of Toleration of All Faiths” (1773) and reforms under Catherine the Great: “In so vast an Empire, which extends its Dominion over such a Variety of People, the prohibiting, or not tolerating of their respective Religions would be an evil very detrimental to the Peace and Security of its Subjects.” In a time of imperial expansion through which millions of people of different faiths were incorporated into the empire this was the rational policy. Stability required adaptation and tolerance. Tolerance policy towards Muslim and Jews, “Toleration of all faiths”, since suppression was not available and practical policy tool over non-christian people. In 1782, Catherine appoints to build mosques along the borders of Orenburg and Tobolsk provinces within the Kazakh steppe. The following year, mosques began to be built in the settlements of Troitsk, Orenburg, Verknii Uralsk, and Petropavlovsk and were purposefully khans of Junior and Middle hordes with intention of keeping these rulers close to Russian control. From nomadic to Mosque based Islam. Transformation in the Qazaq Steppe The 19th c. the “Islamic Transformation” on the Qazaq Steppe Mosque-based politics became a major instrument of Russian expansion into the Kazakh steppe. Encourage Kazakhs going to the Mosque by Russians in order to sedentarize them Namaz were hard to control and nomads don’t pay tax and move when tax comes. So, Russian state had been encouraging or forcing nomadic people to settle. And one-way motivating nomads to sedentary was building mosques and encouraging communal prayers Tatars – most likely intermediaries, had the language and were better equipped to understand culture and values of nomads than Russian missionaries Could tell nomads to practice Islam differently, in a sedentary manner – conversion to Islam could be quick But it was rather a transformation of Islamic practices, than a conversion A lot of changes we see in Kazakhs aren’t caused by a direct Russian policy, but are rather an effect of russian indirect policies In 1784, Catherine appointed Iosip Igelstrom as governor-general of Siberian and Uta provinces. Introduction of Islamic establishment would begin. In the next years, Igel’strom would appoint imams, akhunds to serve in the mosques especially built for the kazakh khans. They would receive the salaries directly from Russian states. Islam decided to be used as a tool-benefit for the empire. Thus, Catherine established Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Academy through the number of reforms, remained in place down to the early Soviet period The Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly ? Established in 1788 by Catherine II, for Muslims – ‘a state church’. ? Controlling Muslims through leaders, traditions carried into the Early Soviet. ? Society’s conscious desire to maximize all its resources and to use this new potential dynamically for the enlargement and improvement of its way of life ? The potential of resources includes not merely material products and riches, but intellectual and cultural creation as well ? The establishment of the assembly was another implementation of the enlightenment idea. ? Catherine II and his state apparatus wanted to utilize religion, Islam and muslim leaders for the benefit of the empire. ? Rule people through their religious leaders, pay them, give them positions. ? The choice of Orenburg was not accidental, it was the closest state to the Kazakh steppe. In a few years, its location was moved to the city of Ufa due to a number of reasons, but the name stuck. ? One of the important functions of the Orenburg assembly was to act as a court of appeal when muslims were unhappy with the decisions of local imams concerning family. ? Muslims could send petitions to assembly and these petitions were heard by mufti and three qazis collectively. Imam - prayer leader, local judge, head of congregation (mahalla)/mosque or a local Islamic community; in larger cities the Imam of the main mosque may be a state employee; in other cases he would simply receive a license from the state and obtain his salary by other means. They were special in imperial regulations on the elections and functions of imams in mahalla Mufti - head official of the Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly, was appointed by Russian tsar. Qadi/qazi – a member on the board of the Orenburg Assembly. Three qazis were elected and signified the judge in an Islamic court (for cases between Muslims). Qazi established close working relations in legal matters with the local Russian consul, as well as with Muslim notables in the town and its environs. ? State license of an imam – certifies that person passed the exam in the Russian language as well as exam at the Orenburg Mukhamaddan Spiritual Assembly in Islamic sciences, was qualified as imam-khatyp and mualim, according to the will of the congregants of Tykanovskii Friday mosque, upon the approval of Ufa governorship. ? Certificate of proficiency in religious sciences – test on Islamic sciences which certifies that person is compatible to be imam-khatyp and mudarris. The document also emphasizes that this certificate does not empower him to fulfill any religious rites until he is approved by provincial authorities ? Official stamps of imams – they had a number of functions within mahalla prescribed by imperial law. They had to keep civil register books where they had to register cases of birth, death, marriages and divorces that occurred. Marriage disputes. Catherine’s aim was to intergrate Qazaqs through conversion to Islam. In the 19 th c, the Russian authorities implemented administrative reforms to directly rule the Kazakh steppe. Three processes connected with these administrative changes introduced the cultural transformation among the Kazakhs that speeded up their integration to the Russian empire of the first half of the 19 th century: The expansion of commercial activity on the Kazakh steppe. Russian forts into the trade centers. The Kazakh steppe and Central Asia were important markets for Russian manufacturing goods. Kazakhs were providing animal products and purchasing manufacturing goods and these exchanges happened at both Russian and Kazakh engagements. The settlement of the Kazakh steppe by Russian subjects The transformation of Kazakh Islamic life under Russian rule These processes were accelerated by Kazakh themselves as much as they were promoted by tsarist authorities. Muslim agency – growth of cities into Islamic centers ? Construction of new mosques became a necessity because of the rise of the Muslim population; funded by wealthy Muslims ? New maktabs and madrasas in addition to mosques ? Centers for scholarly exchange Tatar and Kazakh are of the same turkic family, similar language. Tatar were sedentarized earlier Tevkelev – tatar, looks at nomadic lifestyle as inferior Tatar missionaries – preaching, working with Kazakhs. Review of the sources 19th century, change of Islam in Kazakh steppe. Construction of religious centres within fortresses. Building of Fortresses: Semipalatinsk, Akmolinsk -> became merchant centres for many nations, change of ideas. The reversal of the Russian imperial policy – the 1868 statue For Kazakhs it was almost impossible to go to Khadzh (Mekka), if they gone, they were usually gone without possibility of returning Russians were subsidizing going to Khadzh, one person going there could impact a large number of people, because he would meet different religious influencing people. Printing technology development -> spread of Qurans, increase of people who can read. However, one literate person could spread a whole knowledge for a community WEEK 8 (12 - 18 OCT) The Qazaq Intelligentsia The Russian Conquest of Central Asia Historiography on the Conquest The ‘Great Game’ - the annexation of Central Asia by the Russian military seen solely from the perspective of the ‘Defence of India’ The ‘Cotton Canard’ - the idea that the fall of Tashkent in 1865 and the subsequent conquest of oasis regions of Central Asia came about as a result of lobbying by the Russia textile manufacturing interest, seeking both a secure source of raw cotton and a captive market for manufactured goods. Coexist with a Soviet narrative of Prisoedinenit (‘Uniting’) The ‘Accidental Conquest’ by aggressive, ambitious officers on the frontier: ‘Tashkent has been taken by General Cherniaev. No one knows why and for what [...] there is something erotic about everything we do of the far-flung periphery of the Empire’. “?????????????”. The dominant narrative regarding the Russian conquest of Central Asia in Soviet Historiography as ‘Voluntary Uniting’ In the 1920s and 1930s it was possible to criticise Tsarist Imperialism in the Soviet Union and to analyse it as something resembling the Imperialism of the western powers This change in 1940s, as part of the re-evaluation of Russian history during the World War II From then on the orthodoxy was that Central Asia had not been conquered, but ‘peacefully united’ to Russia, and that the Russian people had played a politically progressive role in raising the peoples of Central Asia to political consciousness Problems with these interpretations The ‘Great Game’ thesis is anglocentric, and sees the conquest through British eyes. The British may have assumed that Russian advance was directed at them, but that is no reason to believe the Russians intended this. It marginalises local rulers and peoples. Russian archival sources demonstrate far greater concern about relations with them than with the British. The ‘Cotton Canard’ thesis does not work chronologically - the Russian advance into Central Asia began at the latest in 1839 with the Winter Expedition to Khiva under General Pervskii. This had been discussed since the early 1800s, well before Russia even had a textile industry. The notion that Moscow’s industrialists had that influence over the Russian state is far-fetched. The idea that the conquest was purely ‘accidental’ trivialises the whole process, and can be used to absolve the Russians of any ‘imperialist’ aims. It is not borne out by the documentary record, which for almost every stage of the advance shows a paper-trail that leads from Orenburg, Omsk or Tiflis through the War Ministry and Foreign Ministry to the Tsar himself. ‘Uniting’ is hardly an appropriate term for a process that involved so much violence, while the notion that certain events or processes in history are inherently ‘progressive’ is a value judgment based on Marxist-Leninist dogma. Why did Russians conquer Central Asia? The initial impulse came from a sense of competitive emulation with other European powers - rebellions on the steppe, attacks on caravans, defiance from petty Central Asia states, came to seem intolerable after Russia’s victory over Napoleon made her one of just two of global powers after 1815. The main point of reference was Britain, but France was also important - Perovskii invoked the French annexation of Algiers in 1830 when arguing for action against Khiva. This was not direct competition for territory or influence so much as a ‘fear ‘of falling’ - of seeing imperial prestige damaged in the eyes of European rivals or of ‘Asiatics’. The Advance from Siberia At the beginning of the 19th century, the furthermost Russian outposts on the Siberian frontier were Semey and Oskemen In the 1820s, a series of fortresses were set up as the centres of new okrugs in the territory of the Middle Juz In 1831, the Russians built a fortress at Ayaguz (Sergiopol), which marked the beginning of an advance towards the Ili. This was followed by Aktau and Ulytau (1835), Lepsinsk (1843), and Kapal (1846). In 1854, Russians crossed the Ili and founded fort Vernoe in the Almaty. The Advance fr

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