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MGMT 340: Organizational Behavior Study Guide MT #2 Chapter 7?8: Episode 25 of the Hidden Brain podcast; Lincoln Electric video Definition of motivation We define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Intensity Direction and Persistence are all subjects of motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory (Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic) A version of self-determination theory that holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling. Cognitive Evaluation theory, a complementary theory of self-determination hypothesizing that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task. When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they have to do. Need for Suggests use caution in the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate, and that pursuing goals from intrinsic motives (such as a strong interest in the work itself) is more sustaining to human motivation than are extrinsic rewards. Similarly, cognitive evaluation theory suggests that providing extrinsic incentives may, in many cases, undermine intrinsic motivation. Goal?setting theory A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. “Specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance” Goal Commitment Assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined not to lower or abandon it. The individual (1) believes he or she can achieve the goal and (2) wants to achieve it. Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, when the goals are self-set rather than assigned, and when they are based at least partially on individual ability. Task Characteristics Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, independent rather than interdependent, and on the high end of achievable. On interdependent tasks, group goals are preferable. Paradoxically, goal abandonment following an initial failure is more likely for individuals than for groups. National Culture Setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have different effects in different cultures. In collectivistic and high-power-distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be more motivating than difficult ones. Finally, assigned goals appear to generate greater goal commitment in high than in low power-distance cultures. Research has not shown that group-based goals are more effective in collectivist than in individualist cultures. Expectancy theory Says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t motivated on their jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by. Employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that it will lead to a good performance appraisal, and that will lead to reward Individual effort > Individual Performance > Organizational Rewards > Personal Goals Focuses on three relationships: Effort–performance relationship. The probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? Their skill level may be deficient, which means no matter how hard they try, they’re not likely to be high performers. Organization’s performance appraisal system may be designed to assess non-performance factors such as loyalty, initiative, or courage, which means more effort won’t necessarily result in a higher evaluation. Another possibility is that employees might, perceive the boss doesn’t like them. So they will do bad no matter the effort. Performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? Reward based on things like sucking up or seniority as opposed to performance, employees are likely to see the performance–reward relationship as weak and demotivating. Rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational rewards are attractive the employee. Are the rewards attractive to me? Like if they employee works hard for a promotion and get a raise instead. Or he wants a more challenging interesting job but only gets praise. Job Characteristics Model (also understand how this theory can be applied to redesign jobs) A model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions. Developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham. Skill variety Is the degree to which a job requires different activities using specialized skills and talents. Job requires high skill Varity if you do a bunch of different things Vs. low Varity of you only do one specified task. Task identity Is the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. High Identity is when you have to complete a whole project (build complete table) (own the whole task) Vs. Building just a part like the leg of the table. Task significance Degree to which a job affects the lives or work of other people. Nurse (High) vs hospital janitor (low) Autonomy Degree to which a job provides the worker freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work and determining the procedures for carrying it out. Sales specialist (high) who makes his own hours and uses his own sales technique. Vs, telephone salesman that follows prompt. Feedback Degree to which carrying out work activities generates direct and clear information about your own performance. (High) Testing and “confirming” operational Ipads Vs. just placing a single part as it moves down the assembly line. Job crafting – Leads to higher motivation Three methods by which to “craft” your job Job Rotation Job Enrichment Combine tasks – such as skill Varity and task identity Form natural work units – Task identity and task significance Establish client relationships – skill Varity, autonomy and feedback Expand job vertically – Autonomy Open feedback channels – Feedback Relational Job design – all of those from above job characteristics model. Alternative work arrangements Job Sharing Telecommuting Flextime Job crafting is redesigning your job to foster satisfaction and engagement through the following: Expand or restrict the boundaries (ie the tasks) Focus on task that lie within that persons passions Take on additional tasks related to the passion Or change tasks to cope with adversity. Redefine the relationships you have with others Build meaningful relationships Expand roles to have bigger impact on beneficiaries Tailor relationships to serve specific boundaries Reprimand or dismiss unpleasant beneficiaries Change relationships to cope with adversity. Change how you think about the work (cognitive crafting) Reframe social Purpose of the work to align with ones passion Change thoughts about the job The book referenced that one girl who was not completely satisfied with her job So she decided to proactively reconfigure her current job. she is part of a movement toward job “crafting,” which is the process of deliberately reorganizing your job so that it better fits your motives, strengths, and passions. Chapter 9 & 10: Episode 52 of the Reply All podcast Why do people form groups? Social Identity People often feel strongly about their groups partly because, as research indicates, shared experiences amplify our perception of events. Self-image can be wrapped up in their identification with the group. Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to whatever happens to the group. The Punctuated Equilibrium model of group development - Temporary groups with finite deadlines pass through a unique sequencing of actions (or inaction): (1) Their first meeting sets the group’s direction, (2) the first phase of group activity is one of inertia and thus slower progress, (3) a transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time, (4) this transition initiates major changes, (5) a second phase of inertia follows the transition, and (6) the group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. The punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes groups as exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by members’ awareness of time and deadlines. Roles: All group members are actors, each playing role, a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. How do we know each role’s requirements? We draw upon our role perceptions to frame our ideas of appropriate behaviors, and learn the expectations of our groups. Norms Acceptable standards of behavior shared by members that express what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. Norms and emotions A recent study found that, in a task group, individuals’ emotions influenced the group’s emotions and vice versa. Norms dictated the experience of emotions for the individuals and for the groups, people grew to interpret their shared emotions in the same way. Norms and Conformity As a member of a group, you desire acceptance by the group. Thus, you are susceptible to conforming to group norms. Considerable evidence suggests that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to match the group’s standard. People conform to their reference groups in which a person is aware of other members, defines himself or herself as a member or would like to be a member. Norms and behavior Norms can cover any aspect of group behavior.35 As we’ve mentioned, norms in the workplace significantly influence employee behavior. Remember the book referenced the idea that people would level their work performance to match everyone else so that no one looked particularly good or particularly bad. Also work incentives for meeting performance goals would not be cut. IF one member went outside this work norms they would be punished. Positive Norms and Group Outcomes The popular thinking is that to increase creativity in groups, for instance, norms should be loosened. However, research on gender-diverse groups indicates that strong PC norms increase group creativity. Negative Norms and Group Outcomes Deviant workplace behavior (also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility) is voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members Group Property 3: status Status—a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others—permeates every society. According to status characteristics theory, status tends to derive from one of three sources:50 The power a person wields over others. Because they likely control the group’s resources, people who control group outcomes tend to be perceived as high status. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contributions are critical to the group’s success tend to have high status. An individual’s personal characteristics. Group Property 4: size and dynamics Larger groups generate idea diversity For productivity things, you want smaller groups of about seven members are better at doing something productive. Social loafing The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. Research indicates that the stronger an individual’s work ethic is, the less likely that person is to engage in social loafing. Agreeableness in a group, the more likely that performance will remain high whether there is social loafing or not. There are ways to prevent social loafing: (1) set group goals, so the group has a common purpose to strive toward; (2) increase intergroup competition, which focuses on the shared group outcome; (3) engage in peer evaluations; (4) select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups; and (5) base group rewards in part on each member’s unique contributions. - Recent research indicates that social loafing can be counteracted by publicly posting individual performance ratings for group members, too.70 Group Property 5: Cohesiveness Groups differ in their cohesiveness—the degree to which members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group. What can you do to encourage group cohesiveness? (1) Make the group smaller (2) encourage agreement with group goals (3) increase the time members spend together (4) increase the group’s status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership (5) stimulate competition with other groups (6) give rewards to the group rather than to individual members, and (7) physically isolate the group. Group Property 6: diversity The final property of groups we consider is diversity in the group’s membership, or the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one another. Overall, studies identify both costs and benefits from group diversity. COSTS: Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a group’s tenure; this often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates. BENEFITS: Although differences can lead to conflict, they also provide an opportunity to solve problems in unique ways. more likely to deliberate longer, share more information, and make fewer factual errors when discussing evidence. It is difficult to be in a diverse group in the short term. However, if members can weather their differences, over time diversity may help them be more open-minded and creative and to do better. In addition to knowing the basics of each property and how they affect group behavior, be sure to know the following: o Roles: role perception, role expectations, role conflict Role Perception An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation. Role Expectations How others believe a person should act in a given situation. Role Conflict A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role (When compliance with one role requirement may make it difficult to comply with another. At the extreme, two or more role expectations may be contradictory. For example, if as a manager you were to provide a performance evaluation of a person you mentored, your roles as evaluator and mentor may conflict. Cohesiveness: ways to increase cohesiveness (1) Make the group smaller (2) encourage agreement with group goals, (3) increase the time members spend together, (4) increase the group’s status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership (5) stimulate competition with other groups (6) give rewards to the group rather than to individual members, (7) physically isolate the group. The strengths and weaknesses of group decision?making: Groups vs. Individuals Strengths Generate more complete information and knowledge. Bring more input as well as heterogeneity into the decision process. They offer increased diversity of views. Weaknesses Decisions are time-consuming - groups typically take more time to reach a solution. There are conformity pressures. The desire by group members to be accepted and considered an asset to the group can squash disagreement. Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. If they’re low- and medium-ability members, the group’s overall effectiveness will suffer. Finally, group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility. In an individual decision, it’s clear who is accountable but not so much for groups. Groupthink Groupthink relates to norms and describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Individuals who hold a position different from that of the dominant majority are under pressure to suppress, withhold, or modify their true feelings and beliefs. Groups that are more focused on performance than learning are especially likely to fall victim to groupthink It seems to occur most often when there is a clear group identity, when members hold a positive image of their group they want to protect, and when the group perceives a collective threat to its positive image.89 Groupshift: In groups, discussion leads members toward a more extreme view of the position they already held. Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take on more risk. the shift has been shown more often to be toward greater risk. The importance of diversity: why diversity leads to more creative and innovative ideas, and the challenges with diversity (especially in Silicon Valley) Differences between groups and teams Groups Purpose: share information and help each group member with his area of responsibility. Individual Accountability Performance = Sum of individual contributions Teams Purpose: create synergy through coordinated effort and complimentary skills Individual and mutual accountability Performance > sum of individual contributions Characteristics of effective teams: contextual factors, process?related factors and factors related to the team’s composition (know each factor and how it affects team performance) o Composition factors: members’ abilities, personality, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member preferences o Process factors: common plan and purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, conflict levels, social loafing o Contextual factors: adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems Criteria for when a team is needed (from class slides) Is the work complex and is there a need for different perspectives? Does the work create a common purpose or a set of goals for the group that is more than the aggregate of the individual goals? Are members of the group involved in interdependent tasks? Chapter 11: Neal Patterson Activity The major functions of communication Management, feedback, emotional sharing, persuasion, and information exchange. Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines employees are required to follow. When employees follow their job descriptions or comply with company policies, communication performs a management function. Informal communication controls behavior too. When workgroups tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the members look bad), they are informally communicating, and managing, the member’s behavior. Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance. We saw this operating in goal-setting theory in Chapter 7. Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communication and stimulate motivation. The workgroup is a primary source of social interaction for many employees. Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration. Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs. Persuasion occurs when a leader is trying to persuade a workgroup to believe in the organization’s commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) or to, conversely, persuade the workgroup to break the law to meet an organizational goal. These may be extreme examples, but it’s important to remember that persuasion can benefit or harm an organization. The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making. Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices. The communication processes Before communication can take place it needs a purpose, a message to be conveyed between a sender and a receiver, a thought. The message is the actual physical product of the sender’s encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions on our faces are the message. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as the barriers discussed. Upward, downward and lateral communication (description and benefits of each) Downward Communication Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level is downward communication. Used by managers to assign goals, provide job instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback. Managers must always explain the reasons why a decision was made. Evidence clearly indicates, that explanations increase employee commitment and the support of decisions. BAD is its one-way nature, generally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions. Upward Communication Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It’s used to provide feedback to higher-ups Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, coworkers, and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward communication for improvements. Becoming increasingly difficult Lateral Communication When communication occurs between members of the same workgroup, members at the same level in separate workgroups, or any other horizontally equivalent workers, we describe it as lateral communication. Good because Saves time and helps with coordination helps with efficiency and expedite action Bad because it can sometimes when formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their superiors, or when bosses find actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge. Oral, written and nonverbal communication (description and benefits of each) Oral Communication Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor mill or grapevine The advantages of oral communication are speed, feedback, and exchange. We are usually bad listeners One major disadvantage of oral communication surfaces whenever a message has to pass through a number of people: the more people, the greater the potential distortion Oral communication “chains” are generally more of a liability than an effective tool in organizations. Written Communication Written communication includes letters, e-mail, instant messaging, organizational periodicals, and any other method that conveys written words or symbols. Letters more personalble and lasting (for the record) PowerPoint great way to explain hard to understand topics but can be too impersonal, disengaging, and frequently hard to follow. E-mail they can be quickly and cheaply written, edited, sent, and stored but corporations lose $650 billion each year from time spent processing unnecessary e-mails. instant messaging real time but if you are not there to receive the message than it could sit there till well after action was needed. text messaging Little bit better than IM but the norms for this are still evolving. Social media Websites Nonverbal Communication Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart an unspoken message. Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone as a powerful message of our business communication. Facial expressions also convey meaning. Physical distance also has meaning. What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms. Channel richness Channel richness (capacity) - Rich: (1) handle multiple cues simultaneously (2) facilitate rapid feedback (3) be very personal Lean in that the above factors score low on above factors Choosing Communication methods The choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine. Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have minimal ambiguity; channels low in richness can carry them efficiently. No routine communications are likely to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding. Managers can communicate them effectively only by selecting rich channels. Whenever you need to gauge the receiver’s receptivity, oral communication is usually the better choice. Also consider the receiver’s preferred mode of communication; some individuals focus on content better in written form and others prefer discussion Written communication is generally the most reliable mode for complex and lengthy communications, and it can be the most efficient method for short Choose written communication when you want the information to be tangible, verifiable, and “on the record.” It is best to severely limit personal text messages during office hours and be cautious in using texting for business purposes. Barriers Filtering Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so the receiver will see it more favorably. A manager who tells his boss what he feels the boss wants to hear is filtering information. Selective Perception Selective perception is important because the receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, backgrounds, and other personal characteristics. Receivers also project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. Information Overload Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data. When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity. When people receive more than they can process, they tend to select, ignore, pass over, or forget it. Or they may put off. To help disconnect from technology more often. Emotions You may interpret the same message differently when you’re angry or distraught than when you’re happy. Language Even when we’re communicating in the same language, words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences. Our use of language is far from uniform. Senders tend to incorrectly assume the words and terms they use mean the same to the receivers as to them. Silence It’s easy to ignore silence or lack of communication because it is defined by the absence of information. Silence can be a simple outcome of information overload, or a delaying period for considering a response. Communication apprehension Social anxiety - people experience undue tension and anxiety in oral communication, written communication, or both. They may find it extremely difficult to talk with others face-to-face or become extremely anxious when they have to use the phone, relying on memos or e-mails. Lying The final barrier to effective communication is lying. People differ in their definition of a lie. People are more comfortable lying over the phone than face-to-face, and more comfortable lying in e-mails than when they have to write with pen and paper.80 Most people are not very good at detecting deception in others. The problem is there are no nonverbal or verbal cues unique to lying Many lies are embedded in truths, liars usually give a somewhat true account with just enough details changed to avoid detection. In sum, the frequency of lying and the difficulty in detecting liars makes this an especially strong barrier to effective communication. Cultural Context In high-context cultures such as China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communicating with others, and a person’s official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight. People from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. They rely essentially on spoken and written words to convey meaning; body language and formal titles are secondary Contextual differences High-context cultures implies considerably more trust by both parties. What may appear to be casual and insignificant conversation in fact reflects the desire to build a relationship and create trust. Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high-context cultures. And who you are—your age, seniority, rank in the organization—is highly valued and heavily influences your credibility. In low-context cultures, enforceable contracts tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and highly legalistic. Similarly, low-context cultures value directness. Managers are expected to be explicit and precise in conveying intended meaning. High Context cultures - rely on nonverbal and subtle situational clues when communicating. Low Context Cultures – rely on spoken and written words to convey meaning.