cellular respiration and photosynthesis plus more. great review

Chapter 8 This is the sum of all chemical reactions within an organism or cell. Metabolism What is the difference between catabolic and anabolic reactions? Which requires an input of energy? Which type of reactions produce ATP? Catabolic (Exergonic rxns) – releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler molecules. Makes atp Anabolic- consumes energy(uses atp) to synthesize(make) a complex molecule from simpler molecules (photosynthesis) This is the energy of motion. Kinetic energy This is the stored energy. Potential energy This is energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules. heat Describe how energy can move from one form to another. When a boulder is at the top of a hill its potential energy, when it starts moving down the hill the potential coverts to kinetic energy What is the fist law of thermodynamics (principle of conservation of energy) Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. What is the second law of thermodynamics? During every energy transfer or transformation, some energy is unusable, often lost as heat. every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe. What is total energy? Enthalpy change (?H) This is a measure or disorder. entropy Entropy normally appears as what in the universe? increasing amount of heat and less ordered form of matter For a process to occur spontaneously, it must _increase______ the entropy of the universe. Do spontaneous processes occur with or without energy input? Without imput of energy The amount of available energy that can be used to promote change do work is called? Free energy What is the formula for change in free energy? What is equilibrium? is a state of maximum stability As a reaction proceeds toward equilibrium, what happens to the free energy of the reactants and products? Free energy decreases stability increases A system at equilibrium is at what value G? equals 0 What is the free energy change of a spontaneous reaction? Free energy (?G) decreases (?G<0) Describe the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions.In which process in energy released (?G<0) and in which process is energy required (?G>0)? Exergonic(high to low) -A spontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is released. (?G<0), negative no energy required Endergonic(low to high);energy required- A nonspontaneous chemical reaction in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings. (?G>0), positive This is the use of an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction. Atp hydrolysis/cycle What is ATP? adenosine triphosphate(3 phosphate), it’s the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell Does it have potential energy? yes in phosphate bonds Does ATP synthase make ATP? Converts adp to atp Does the hydrolysis of ATP yield energy? Yes Does the hydrolysis ATP drive endergonic reactions? Yes How can the bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP be broken? Hydrolysis What does phosphorylated mean? the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to some other molecule, such as the reactant. How is ATP used by cells?cellular procceses……. Movement, synthesis, active transport How is ATP regenerated (atp Cycle)? Hydrolysis occurs to Atp and a phosphate group is broken releasing energy(cellular proccesses) and converting ATP to ADP with a spare phospate group (its excergonic and catabolic). Adp then reattaches the phosphate with the help of energy and the atp synthase (cellular respiration) creating atp. repeats Define enzyme. a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction What are the two categories of catalysts? Proteins and Rna molecules (ribozymes) An enzyme does what to the activation energy? Lower it What is activation energy? What are two ways of overcoming activation energy? activation energy - The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start overcoming large amounts of heat (increase kinetic energy add a catalyst (lower activation rate ) What is the transition state? When the molecule is no longer a substrate but not yet a product Enzyme does what to the speed of the reaction? Speed up by lowering the activation energy What is substrate specificity? Substrate- reactants that bind to active site (what binds to the active site) Substrate specificty- ability of an enzyme to choose the exact substrate from a group of similar chemical molecules. What is an active site? Where the substrate binds and the location where reaction takes place What are the general steps of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?   substrates bind to enzyme enzyme undergoes conformational changes substrates converted to products products are released What happens during the transition state When the molecules have absorbed enough energy for the bonds to break, the reactants are in an unstable condition When is an enzyme substrate complex formed? formed when enzyme and substrate bind How can the active site lower an EA barrier? Orienting substrates correctly Straining substrate bonds Providing a favorable microenvironment Covalently bonding to the substrate What things can affect the efficiency of an enzyme? temperature pH concentration Chemicals that specifically influence the enzyme Where does a competitive inhibitor bind on an enzyme to reduce its productivity? blocking substrates from entering active sites Does a competitive inhibitor resemble the substrate? yes Can the effect of competitive inhibitor be overcome by increasing the amount of substrate for the enzyme? No only for noncompetetive ones Where does a non-competitive inhibitor bind to the enzyme? Bind to the enzyme away from the active side altering the conformation of the enzyme so that the active site can no longer function What is allosteric regulation? protein’s function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site. What is cooperativity? binding by a substrate to one active site stabilizes favorable structural changes at all other subunits How can an activator and an inhibitor have different effects on an allosterically regulated enzyme? activator stabilizes the active form of the enzyme becomes available inhibitors stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme doesn’t function properly Do temperature, pH, and ionic concentrations play an important role in the proper functioning of enzymes?   Yes What is a cofactor? Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme (helpers) What is a conenzyme? An organic molecule serving as a cofactor How does feedback inhibition work? Chapter 9 What are the two energy intermediate produced by catabolic reactions? NAD+ AND FAD and atp What are two ways ATP is made in the cell? Substrate-level phosphorylation and Oxidative phosphorylation Oxidation is ___loss___ of electrons. Reduction is __addition____ of electrons. NADH can oxidize to make ___nad+_________ and donate __Electrons_______ during synthesis reactions. Which two energy intermediates are needed to drive anabolic reactions forward? NADH and FADH2 and atp The C6H12O6 + 6O2 ? 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP + heat) reaction represents what process? Cellular respiration breakdown of glucose to make(release) atp Is the breakdown of glucose endergonic or exergonic? Exergonic(sponatanues,release) What is cellular respiration? Breaking down sugar to make atp Does aerobic cellular respiration require oxygen? What are the four metabolic pathways involved? It requires oxygen Glycolysis: splits sugar, 2 atp invested 2 atp profit(4 total) 2 nadh Pyruvate oxidation: inside mitocondria matrix, forms 2 NADH, and 2 co2 (glycolysis makes 2 pryuvate) Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle ) in mitocondria matrix makes 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 and 2 CO2 per turn. x2 everything output is ATP Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) oxedized nadh to reduce(add electrons) oxygen to release a lot of energy Does fermentation require oxygen? NO Which of the following processes will occur in the presence or absence of oxygen?   glycolysis electron transport chain pyruvate oxidation oxidative phosphorylation cellular respiration citric acid cycle What is glycolysis? Glucose gets converted to 2 pyrvate 4 ATP are made but 2 ATP net. 2 NADH are made Where in the cell does glycolysis occur? cytoplasm During the redox reaction in glycolysis, which molecule acts as the oxidizing agent and which one is the reducing agent? Oxidizing agent NAD+ Reducing agent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate What are the three phases of glycolysis? In the energy investment phase __2__ ATP are hydrolyzed to create fructose-1,6 bisphospate 6 carbon molecule(glucose) broken into two 3 carbon molecules of ______glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in __energy investment_________ phase Two glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate molecules broken down into two ______pyruvate_________ molecules producing ___2_ NADH and ____4 (2 profit)____ ATP in ______energy payoff________ phase In glycolysis, glucose is broken down into what? two molecules of pyruvate How many steps are in the citric cycle? 8 steps In the citric acid cycle, the acetyl group is removed from acetyl CoA and attached to oxaloacetate to form _________citrate_____. What are the resulting molecules of the citric acid cycle? Which energy intermediates are made? How many of each kind are made as a result of one turn of the citric acid cycle? 1 atp 3 nadh 1 fadh2 2 co2 What happens after glycolysis and before the citric acid cycle? If oxygen is present, pyruvate will be converted to ___2_acetyl______ CoA in the mitochondrial matrix. The enzyme responsible for oxidizing pyruvate once it enters the mitochondrial matrix is  Pyruvate dehydrogenase What is substrate level phosphorylation? The production of ATP by transfering a phosphate group from a phosphorylated compound to ADP, occurs in both glycolysis and citric acid cycle What is oxidative phosphorylation? The production of ATP using energy recieved from the redox reactions(transfer of electrons ) of an electron transport chain What is the role of NAD+ and FAD in cellular respiration? NAD+ and FAD function as oxidizing agents Which pathway shows the correct path of electron transfer from a molecule of NADH?   4.   NADH hydrogenase ubiquinone cytochrome b-c1 cytochrome c cytochrome oxidase O2 Describe what is happening during the electron transport chain. Where does the electron transport chain occur in the cell? Mitochondria inner membrane Most electrons carriers are organized into three complexes Flavoproteins Cytochromes Ubiquiones Mobile carriers transfer electrons between complexes What is the proton motive force? The potential energy stored in the form of a proton electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions Energy released by the electron transport chain is used to pump H+ ions into which location?  mitochondrial intermembrane space Describe the free energy change during electron transport. 53 kcal/mol Goes down, falls 2.5 atp 1 nadh 1.5 atp fadh2 What is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain that functions in aerobic) oxidative phosphorylation? Oxygen The products: water, atp, nad and fad What is chemiosmosis? An energy catching mechanism that uses energy stored from the hydrogen ion gradient to pump hydrogen ions to the intermembrance space through the atp synthase to drive cellular work Which step of aerobic cellular respiration produces the most chemical in the form of ATP? oxidative phosphorylation( electron transport chain ) This is the partial degradation of sugar without oxygen. fermentation How many ATP are made during fermentation? Which pathway generates this ATP? 4 atp (2 profit) glycolysis This type of respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen where a substance other than O2 is used as the final acceptor of an electron transport chain. anaerobic respiration Breakdown of organic molecules without oxygen is called. fermentation During fermentation, yeast break down pyruvate into __co2______ and _____ acetaldehyde _____. What are the differences between alcohol and lactic acid fermentation? lactic acid pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2 alcohol pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, with the first releasing CO2 The aerobic breakdown of glucose yields __30_ to __32____ ATP, while the anaerobic breakdown of glucose yields _____2___ ATP.   Can proteins and fats be used as energy sources to drive aerobic respiration?  yes What are obligate anaerobes? Do they carry out fermentation or cellular respiration? Is O2 the final electron acceptor? An organism that carries out only fermentation or anaerobic respiration. Such organisms cannot use oxygen and in fact may be poisoned by it. How is cellular respiration controlled? Feedback inhibition Energy flow in respiration: glucose ? NADH ? electron transport chain ? protonmotive force ? ATP. Use Cellular respiration diagram and Summary Table provided in the outline. What is the starting and end products of each phase? What is the net gain of ATP in each phase? Where does each phase occur in the cell? Glycolysis – cytoplasm Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl group – mitochondrial matrix Citric Acid cycle – mitochondrial matrix Electron transport chain proteins – inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae) Chapter 10 This means self feeder. These are producers and make organic molecules from inorganic sources. Autotroph These obtain their organic material from autotrophs. heterotroph These organisms most specifically utilize light energy to make organic molecules from inorganic molecules.   Photoautotroph Define photosynthesis, including the formula. What is reduced? Photosynthesis - The conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other organic compounds Water is oxidized Co2 is reduced Is photosynthesis an endergonic or exergonic reaction? Is it catabolic or anabolic? Anabolic and endergonic What is chloroplast? a organelle in plants and algae that carry out photosynthesis Outer membrane, Inner membrane, and intermembrane space There are different forms of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun, which form is visible? Visible light What is a photon? a discrete quantity of light energy that behaves as if it were a particle This is the tissue in the interior of the leaf. Mesophyll These are microscopic pores found on plants. stomata This is the fluid in a chloroplast. Stroma What is a thylakoid? 3rd membrane with Sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.(sight for light reaction) This pigment is responsible for the red-yellow coloration seen in leaves during the color change in autumn.  Carotenoid, broaden the spectrum of colors that drive photosynthesis. And photoprotection, absorb excessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll They absorb blue/green light and reflect yellow and red  What give plants their green color? Chlorophyll Which wavelengths of light are reflected? green Which wavelengths of light are best for driving photosynthesis? violet-blue and red light What are the two main stages of photosynthesis Light reaction (light-dependent reactions) Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions) Light reactions Where do light reaction take place thylakoid membrane What is produced Oxygen, NADPH and ATP Which of the following molecules directly converts NADP+ to NADPH? nadp reductase During noncyclic electron flow of the light reaction, which molecule is the final acceptor of the high-energy electron? NADP+ Which two energy intermediates are made during noncylic electron flow? ATP & NADPH Which energy intermediates is made during cyclic electron flow? ATP Which of the following best represents the path of electron flow that occurs during photosynthesis (noncylic flow)?   P680Final Electron AcceptorH2OElectron transport chainP700 What is photophosphorylation? The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis, using a proton-motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis closest to oxidative During the light reaction ___H2O________ is oxidized to form oxygen This is the incorporation of carbon into organic compounds. Carbon fixation How do the reactant molecules of photosynthesis reach the chloroplast in leaves? CO2 enters leaves via stomata, and water enters via roots and is carried to leaves through veins. Name and describe all pigments found in plants. Chlorophyll a (photosynthetic pigment) the key light-capturing pigment that participates directly in the light reactions Chlorophyll b An accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a Carotenoids An accessory pigment that absorbs wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis. What is a photosystem? Photosystems utilize light to energize an electron, used in an electron transport chain to create high-energy molecules for use in the calvin cycle of photosynthesis What comprises a reaction center? What is the main role of the pigment molecules within the antenna or light-harvesting complex? Reaction center step 2 - proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor. this triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis. Excited by light energy, the pair of chlorophylls donates an electron to the primary electron acceptor, Light-harvesting complex step 1 Absorb photons and transfer light energy to the reaction center What are the differences between photosystem I and II? Photosystem II Photosystem I Reaction ceter chlorophyll a - p680 Reaction centre chlorophyll a- p700 Participates in only noncylic photophosphorylation Participate in cylic and noncylic photophosphorylation Main functions are atp syntheis and oxidize water Main function is atp sythesis(making atp ) What are the differences between noncyclic and cyclic electron flow? noncyclic electron flow(linear electron flow)- photon gets excited then goes into p680(light harvesting complex) and gets excited then goes into the primary carrier then water splits and the 2 hydrogen electrons joins p680. the electrons gets tranferred to the psI via the transport chain to the cycochrome complex which releases energy for h+ gradient (makes atp) ctochrome complex sends a electron(chlorophyll) to ph1. photon hits the harvsting complex in the psI which makes it go into the primary acceptor. Then gets transfored and makes nadp (makes atp AND nadph and o2 via thylakoid lumen ) cyclic electron flow uses only photosystem 1 makes only atp p700(electron) is sent BACK to the cytochrome complex then the c.c sends the electron back to ps1 reaction center and repeats In the light reactions, what is the electron donor? H2O How is Calvin cycle used in photosynthesis? To make sugar Where does the Calvin cycle take place? stroma Calvin cycle use ____atp and nadph______ and incorporates ____co2______ into organic molecules. What are the three main phases of the Calvin cycle? 6 CO2 molecule for 1 glucose OUTPUT – CH2O per turn Carbon fixation. The enzyme rubisco combines CO2 with 5-carbon sugar rubulose biphosphate (RuBP) (unstable). It gets phosphoralated and reduced by NADPH The unstable product form splits into 2 molecules of 3-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA) Reduction and carbohydrate production 6 molecules of ATP are used to oxidize NADPH to NADP+. 6 molecules of 3-PGA are reduced, producing 6 molecules of energy-rich 3-carbon sugar G3P. but 1 molecule is released. Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP) A series of chemical reactions use 3 ATP to rearrange the atoms of the 5 G3P molecules, into 3 RuBP molecules These will start another turn of the cycle. Ensure that the cycle repeats This molecule combines with CO2 to form the 3-carbon substance, 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) rubulose biphosphate (RuBP). What is the function of rubisco? Catalyst(enzyme) to add CO2 onto RuBP Where do these reaction take place   light reaction; __ thylakoid membrane _________ electron transport; ____mitochondria cristae/ inner membrane______ Calvin cycle; ___stroma______ ATP synthase; _____mitochondria inner membrane ________ splitting of water; _______photosystem II_____ Which type of plants have highest photosynthetic efficiency in hot and dry environments C4 plants What are C4 plants? What mechanism has evolved to minimize photorespiration? C4 photosynthesis, uses less water and resources C4 plants A plant that incorporate CO2 into a four-carbon compound before the calvin cycle. end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. Photorespiration Which type of environment does photorespiration occur? Hot dry In photorespiration, rubisco uses __oxygen__ to produce a 3-carbon sugar precursor. What is liberated(released)? CO2 Occurs in which types of plants? Hot days when plants close stomata In C3 plants the conservation of water promotes __photorespiration___. Cooler climates. Big picture Photosynthesis and Respiration go together like a cycle: Photosynthesis (sugar and oxygen) are the raw materials needed to start Respiration. Respiration (water and carbon dioxide) are needed for Photosynthesis 12