Comm 240 Assignment

COMM240 | Lesson 6: Intercultural Communication and Higher Education Introduction Higher education is becoming increasingly diverse. More Americans are attending colleges and universities, and many institutions are actively recruiting international students to increase the diversity of the student population. Today, college enrollment levels are becoming more similar for both African American and white students; however, graduation rates remain significantly different (Zinshteyn, 2016). The total number of enrolled part-time and full-time students continues to increase, across all social, economic, and cultural groups. The differences in graduation rates are an example of an educational disparity , or unequal access or results from education. The growing diversity in higher education reflects the growing diversity in the United States. By 2050, the U.S. Census predicts that 54 percent of the population will be minorities (Broughton, 2008). Administrators, instructors and students need to work to encourage and support this campus and community diversity. Culturally sensitive classroom management procedures can play a key role in improving educational outcomes for minority students, including immediacy, culturally appropriate content, classroom expectations and peer-to-peer communication. Instructors must be willing to tackle the hard issues in their courses, including discussing diversity and race.   Educational institutions’ diversity policies are shaped by laws and policies coming down from the government, and encouragement to change moving up from the students and instructors. For individuals, it is important to remember that even small changes on campus can increase campus diversity, and reduce the educational disparities between majority and minority students. Topics to be covered include: Educational outcomes and disparities Immediacy in the classroom Classroom expectations Culturally appropriate content Peer-to-peer communication   Educational Outcomes and Disparities In education at all levels, there is an increasing interest in and focus on educational outcomes. Educational outcomes are measurable and trackable, including things like test scores and graduation rates. The three most common measurable outcomes in higher education are: How many students enter college. How many get their degree. How long it takes them (Oetzel, 2008, p. 182). Statistics track educational outcomes in a variety of ways, looking at race or ethnicity, gender, and whether students are native-born or international students. In broad terms, white and Asian American students enroll in college at the highest rates and are overrepresented in higher education, at the bachelor and master levels. At the doctoral level, international students are more heavily represented. While women outnumber men at the bachelor and master levels, men outnumber women at the doctoral level (Oetzel, 2008, p, 183). Graduation rates are typically tracked in terms of six-year graduation, or a total enrolled time of no more than six years. Non-traditional students often take longer than this six-year timeframe to graduate, as they’re frequently working full-time or meeting other responsibilities while attending school. Increasing graduation rates is a widespread goal for all higher education institutions. Many different factors can shape or impact graduation rates at all levels. These include: Community and Home Support Family support can significantly increase the overall likelihood of graduation. Socioeconomic Status Greater access to resources improves the likelihood of graduation. Institutional diversity Students from minority cultures are more likely to graduate in a more diverse institution. Similarity between the Home and Institutional Community When the student feels more comfortable in the institution, educational success is more likely. Educational Levels in the Family Home More educated parents will produce children who are more likely to complete their own educations. Educational Outcomes and Disparities Continued…     Knowledge Check 1 Question 1 Which group makes up the largest percentage of undergraduate students? Men International students Women African Americans Hint Solution I don't know Communication to an Intercultural Audience Instructional communication is all communication relating to teaching and learning. Instructional communication includes: Teacher-student communication in the classroom. Teacher-student communication out of the classroom. Peer-to-peer communication between students, both in and out of the classroom.   Instructional communication plays a significant role in student success, including positive educational outcomes. Intercultural communication and the potential misunderstandings associated with it can significantly contribute to educational disparities. Where there is a mismatch or significant difference between the institutional culture and the student’s home culture, intercultural communication in an instructional setting will become more challenging. You should consider three different aspects of instructional communication. These are classroom management, learning styles, and peer-to-peer communication.     Managing the Classroom According to Kratochwill et. al. (2017),  “ Classroom management is the process by which teachers and schools create and maintain appropriate behavior of students in classroom settings. The purpose of implementing classroom management strategies is to enhance prosocial behavior and increase student academic engagement.” Classroom management strategies differ depending upon the needs of the students and type of the course; however, they include motivation, instruction and feedback for students, and managing student assignments and work. While there are many different classroom management behaviors, this lesson will focus on three, particularly relevant to higher education. These are immediacy, effectively communicating expectations, and creating both engaging and culturally appropriate content for students.     Immediacy   ‹1/5 › Immediacy Immediacy creates feelings of closeness, care, and forms a bond and connection with students, and was defined by social psychologist Albert Mehrabian. You may find it helpful to think of immediacy as likeability. Effective use of instructional immediacy will produce happy and engaged students. There are three distinct types of immediacy. Each of these is important to support effective interaction in an instructional environment. Instructional immediacy is focused on communication behaviors in the classroom and related to direct instruction between instructors and students. Relational immediacy is behavior that increases the psychological closeness between instructor and student. Personal immediacy relates to the moral and ethical behavior of instructors (Oetzel, 2008, p. 185). Positive Feelings Immediacy is quite important across cultures; students respond best to teachers that they like and engage with effectively. Teacher immediacy increases the students’ affect or positive feelings toward the class, then improves motivation and classroom performance (Oetzel, 2008, p. 187). It's important to note that immediacy includes verbal speech and nonverbal communication of different sorts. Think of courses you’ve attended, and teachers who you enjoyed. How did they interact with the course? How did they create immediacy in the classroom? Smiling, gesturing, moving about the room, and using different vocal inflections are all things you might have considered as nonverbal ways to create immediacy. Learning and using student’s names, encouraging interaction and conversation, and providing appropriate feedback are all examples of verbal immediacy. Lack of Immediacy Instructors who show few immediacy behaviors are likely to be perceived in a more negative light; students are less apt to provide positive evaluations and assessments. When providing negative feedback, incorporating fewer immediacy behaviors may be appropriate, but some immediacy behaviors should remain to encourage positive interactions. A lack of immediacy is connected to increased verbal aggression, student resistance and distance education. Maintaining immediacy is particularly challenging in distance education environments (Rocca, 2007). Intercultural Aspects How does immediacy relate to intercultural communication and to educational disparities on the basis of race or ethnicity? Non-white students may experience less immediacy in the classroom. Students of color are likely to experience less warmth and friendliness from instructors both in and out of the classroom. Appropriate types or levels of immediacy may vary depending upon culture. For instance, in the United States, using first names and making casual conversation are perceived as appropriate immediacy. In Asian cultures, this would be deemed overly familiar in a classroom or teacher-student setting (Oetzel, 2008, p. 187). The balance of different types of immediacy, including instructional, relational and personal may vary depending upon cultures. White students are likely to place a higher priority on instructional immediacy and lower priorities upon relational and personal immediacy. Relational and personal immediacy may be more important to minority students. Instructor Behaviors that Encourage Immediacy Instructors can: Be conscientious of their own behavior toward minority students to increase immediacy. Be considerate of power distance, or hierarchical relationships between teacher and student, found in other cultures. Be aware of personal and relational immediacy and focus some time and effort on personally engaging with minority students to increase feelings of immediacy for these students.   “Immediacy is behavior that brings the instructor and the students closer together in terms of perceived distance. Nonverbal immediacy includes behaviors such as smiling, gesturing, eye contact and having relaxed body language. Verbal immediacy refers to calling the students by name, using humor and encouraging student input and discussion” Rocca (2007).   Knowledge Check 1 Question 1 Jill teaches religious studies. She makes a point of learning all of her students’ names and tries to see everyone at least once a semester out of the classroom and to engage students personally in the classroom. She is working to establish: Instructional immediacy Personal immediacy Power distance Relational immediacy Hint Solution I don't know Classroom Expectations Instructor attitudes and expectations toward students play a key role in student success in the classroom.  Classroom Expectations  Classroom Expectations Classroom expectations are the instructors’ beliefs about student abilities and behaviors. These impact actions, grading, and discussions in the classroom. When students perceive that instructors care about and are committed to their success in the class, they are more likely to work hard and to succeed in their courses. Instructor biases and stereotypes frequently impact the attitudes toward students and expectations of students. close Biases and stereotypes may shape how instructors treat students in the classroom. Instructors may have lower expectations for minority students. These lower expectations often translate to reduced support from the instructor. In math and science, female students may be underestimated or disregarded. Instructor biases can take several different forms. Instructors could be too easy or too harsh on individual students, avoid engaging with some students, or ignore some students while favoring others. In some cases, students have absorbed these attitudes. Classroom expectations can be managed effectively by providing all students with support and interaction on a consistent basis. Fair grading rubrics are important, as are options to provide additional learning or tutoring opportunities.     Culturally Appropriate and Engaging Content   Earlier in this lesson, you learned that one of the factors impacting educational disparities was similarity between the educational culture and home culture. In many cases, course content is not culturally appropriate for minority students, and may feel irrelevant or inadequately engaged. Creating content that is culturally relevant to students can increase their engagement. Content that addresses diverse cultures is sometimes called culturally responsive instruction. Culturally responsive instruction does not have to be customized for each student. It can, however, be designed to appeal to a diverse audience. If crafting a course on twentieth century American literature, instructors can include writers of different ethnicities, cultures and gender, and from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Discussions can be inclusive of the students’ lives and experiences (Rajagopal, 2007). In many classes, culturally appropriate content includes direct and active discussion of issues of race, ethnicity, class and culture. While conversations about race and racism are important, they are also difficult. To successfully discuss issues of race and class in the classroom, instructors can lay out guidelines for the discussion, model diversity, be aware of their own biases and privilege, and create a classroom environment that is motivating, safe, and comfortable (Oetzel, 2008, p. 189).   Understanding Learning Styles Learning Styles Individual versus Cooperative Learning Individualistic versus Collaborative Backgrounds Classroom Behavior Learning styles are people’s preferred methods of learning. While most people can learn and retain information in a variety of ways, typically one to two methods of learning are most effective for each individual. When learning styles are discussed, they often refer to ways of presenting and taking in information, like visual learners or auditory learners. In intercultural communication, instructors and educators are more concerned with the ways people manage information, both individually and culturally, and how this impacts learning style. Two of these issues are the difference between individual and cooperative learning, and the use of experiential learning. As a student, you likely already know the difference between individual learning and cooperative learning , but it’s not quite what you think. You probably thought about the difference between independent and group learning. That is one part of individual versus cooperative learning, but not the only part. In fact, individual learning is focused on critical thinking, objective observations and abstract analysis. Cooperative thinking focuses on personal reflection, subjective observation and cooperative performance in the classroom. Students from individualistic cultures have a preference for individual learning, while those from collectivist cultures are more likely to prefer cooperative learning. Students of color often experience a collaborative and cooperative home and family environment. That preference frequently continues into their learning styles with a preference for cooperative learning. Blending cooperative and individual learning in a classroom can help to more effectively meet the learning style needs of different groups. Student classroom behavior is often related to this difference in learning styles. Individual learners typically prioritize vocal classroom performance. They talk, engage and debate in class. Silence for these learners may be seen as a lack of understanding. Cooperative learners are much less likely to talk in class or to use talking as part of the learning process. They are more likely to prioritize listening over talking. Creating varied classroom structures and ways to participate in the classroom can help to incorporate cooperative learners more effectively.   Understanding Learning Styles Continued…   Knowledge Check 1 Question 1 David was raised on a reservation; he is a skilled storyteller, but often remains quiet during classes. David is: A collaborative learner An individualistic learner A cooperative learner A belligerent learner Hint Solution I don't know Experiential Learning According to Kobe’s 1984 experiential learning model , “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it” (Kolb, 1984, p.41). Experiential learning is process, rather than outcome oriented, and is grounded in real-world experiences. It is a dialectic process, with a goal of resolving conflict, adapting to the world, and balancing transactions between the individual and the environment (Clark, 2011). Learning is composed of a cycle containing four elements. Each of these elements are necessary to the learning process. These four elements are: Concrete Experience Concrete experience  is the first-hand experience of the subject matter. Reflective Observation Reflective observation includes observing the subject and thinking about the observations about the subject. Abstract Conceptualization Abstract conceptualization  is the process of looking at and weighing the strengths and weaknesses of different perspectives on the subject. Active Experimentation The active experimentation element of the cycle involves testing the information learned in the first three stages of the cycle (Oetzel, 2008, p. 193).     Effective Learning The four elements of the experiential learning cycle: accommodators, convergers, divergers, assimilators. Effective Learning Continued… The most effective learning incorporates all four elements of the experiential learning cycle. That said, most people favor some elements of this model over others. Each of the following learning style preferences combine two elements of the cycle.   Accommodators Accommodators  are learners who combine concrete experience and active experimentation. They are adaptable learners and often use trial and error; they are also effective teachers. Problem solving is often a skill in this learning style. Convergers Convergers are learners who combine abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Convergers are typically highly rational learners, focused on deductive reasoning. They are practical and prefer objective learning and technical problems. They are more likely to struggle with interpersonal skills. Divergers Divergers  combine concrete experience and reflective observation. They are typically highly imaginative and able to see a range of different perspectives on a situation. They are cooperative and feelings-oriented, working very well in groups. Assimilators Assimilators combine reflective observation and abstract conceptualization. They learn through watching and thinking, like ordered learning, and enjoy working with theoretical models (Oetzel, 2008, p. 194). Assimilators are likely to want to design experiments and projects (Clark, 2011). In many cases, education in North America focuses largely on convergence-style learning. This may leave other types of learners without the resources they need to learn effectively. Convergers are most closely associated with individual learning; other styles may be more closely associated with cooperative learning. Think about the following classroom activities that you might find in a college or university classroom. Which learning style from the experiential model fits the example? Dr. Smith Dr. Smith runs a very traditional classroom. He teaches physical anthropology and relies on lectures and individual research projects. He does not assign group work, and prefers his students stay closely focused on the scientific research. Dr. Jones Dr. Jones also teaches physical anthropology. She uses many physical models in her classroom, and asks students to think critically about the information. They frequently work in small groups. Dr. Williams Dr. Williams asks students to craft a semester-long research project. They have to design and, when possible, test their theories. They may work alone or in small groups, as they prefer.   Dr. Smith’s class is a very traditional one. It is well suited to convergers, and less helpful for other types of learners, although assimilators may do fairly well. Dr. Jones does an excellent job reaching both divergers and accommodators. Dr. Williams’ class is favored by assimilators, but also meets the needs of divergers. The more flexible the class structure, the more likely it is to meet the needs of multiple types of learners in the classroom. Knowledge Check 1 Question 1 For the final class project, the instructor has assigned a large group project. It requires careful factual analysis and careful planning to create a theoretical model. Which of the following learners is likely to struggle with the work most? Assimilators Divergers Convergers Accommodators Hint Solution I don't know Supporting Peer-to-peer Communication Peer-to-peer interaction and communication, or communication that takes place between students rather than student and instructor, is also a key part of the learning process. Peer-to-peer interaction provides students with social support, or aid and comfort from others when it is positive; however, negative peer-to-peer interaction can significantly worsen student experiences. Negative peer-to-peer communication and interaction is often the result of tensions between different cultural groups. Minority students are more likely to experience negative peer-to-peer communication, contributing to educational disparity. Peer-to-peer communication is impacted by individual communication styles, by how others perceive those styles, and by how the individual tailors their communication style to support the needs of others. In addition, skilled peer-to-peer communicators are empathetic, work to recognize others, and are thoughtful about their use of technology. Finally, they are willing to handle miscommunication immediately, to reduce tension or conflict in the classroom (Lauby, 2014).     Layered Perspectives in Higher Education     ‹1/4 › Layers in Higher Education Institutions of higher education are made of many different layers. There are students, graduate students, who may function as instructors for undergraduates, staff, faculty and administrators. In addition, these institutions are controlled, in some ways, by federal and state legislatures that provide funding and make rules and regulations. Bottom-up Effects on Higher Education As you’ve already learned, bottom-up effects move from the individual or small group of individuals to upper levels of society, including the relational, organizational and cultural. In higher education, the organizational layer is typically the educational institution. Both individual students and individual instructors can impact the educational culture and communication at their college or university. Instructors can work to create safe, accepting and inclusive classroom environments. They can carefully consider their own interactions with students, including immediacy in the classroom and in their out-of-classroom interactions with their students, maintain appropriate classroom expectations for all students, and offer culturally appropriate and engaging material. When one instructor works to create an improved classroom environment, this can spread to other classes. In addition, instructors can use their own roles within their departments or the larger institution to advocate for widespread change at the organizational level. Advocates Students can individually advocate for themselves and work to engage with instructors and classmates. They can also organize together into groups to advocate for improved policies and interaction with instructors, better intercultural education, and access to culturally appropriate materials and practices. Students can work together to develop social networks and to support one another. With the support of other students, success in school improves, along with graduation outcomes. Family and Community Support Families can also be a key source of support for their students. When families, particularly minority families, offer strong support for their college students, students are more likely to succeed and to graduate. While a single family is only likely to impact their own members, this can begin a larger progressive change throughout the educational institution or even the larger culture. This can extend beyond family and into communities. When extended family, friends and local communities support higher education, students are more likely to thrive. If students feel alienated or out of place in their own communities when seeking higher education, this may reduce the likelihood of positive educational outcomes. Fundamentally, when students feel at home and accepted in an educational setting, they are more likely to succeed. Instructors, peers and family can all play a part in creating that acceptance.   The Impact of Educational Institutions on their Students The impact of educational institutions on their students is an example of a top-down effect. Access to higher education can reshape the life experiences of individuals, as well as their attitudes toward others. First, consider why instructors and institutions are not changing as much as is needed to meet the needs of a diverse student population. Several factors stall or slow change at the organizational level. These include:  Institutional Barriers to Change  Institutional Barriers to Change For instance, if an institution schedules only very large lecture courses, it may be difficult to integrate relational immediacy and cooperative learning experiences, even if instructors would like to do so, and recognize the importance of doing so. Instructors also may not have time to initiate new teaching strategies, due to paperwork, research responsibilities, or departmental expectations. close  Resistance from privileged colleagues  Resistance from privileged colleagues Resistance from privileged colleagues, who are often older, white, and tenured, can limit the ability of younger instructors to integrate culturally appropriate content or more diverse teaching methods. This is especially true for faculty who are hoping to get tenure; they need to maintain the goodwill of their colleagues. close  Lack of Personal Understanding  Lack of Personal Understanding Instructors may not know or understand how to improve their teaching and reach out to minority students. While teachers in kindergarten through 12th grade receive a great deal of training in how to teach, college instructors lack the benefits of educational training. In addition, many instructors simply will not have the personal experience or empathy to reshape their teaching to better meet the needs of minority students. When institutions have diverse faculty and administrators, there is a greater likelihood of culturally appropriate content and teaching methodologies. close  Despair  Despair For some instructors, a belief that they cannot initiate change or do not have the ability to make a difference can lead them to do nothing at all, rather than to make changes in their classroom and teaching methodology (Oetzel, 2008, p. 198). While student diversity has increased significantly, diversity in the administration, staff, and faculty remains quite low. Institutions with a positive diversity climate, or active policies and attitudes regarding diversity, are more able to attract diverse faculty, staff and students. close     The Impact of Society on Educational Institutions Students with limited prior experience with Western culture may have difficulty adjusting to college life. The Impact of Society on Educational Institutions   Community Impact Community Factors Affirmative Action Pros and Cons Controversies Culture, society and government impact the policies, procedures, actions and attitudes of educational institutions. Communities and community attitudes and support shape institutional policies. Along with communities, laws and policies from the federal and state governments also play a significant role in how educational institutions manage diversity issues. First, it’s important to understand the community factors involved in the process of higher education. Key factors in the community include the degree of separation or integration present, the degree of community cohesion present, and the level of supervision present within the community. Individuals from recent immigrant families living in integrated communities are more likely to successfully pursue higher education; however, those in segregated communities are also effectively able to move forward depending upon the neighborhood and community. Segregated communities that are cohesive, with a strong focus on academic achievement also produce successful students. When community members come together to support children and youth in education, even in segregated communities of lower socioeconomic status, educational outcomes can be quite good. In this case, the culture of the community is impacting the success of the individual within the educational institution (Oetzel, 2008, p. 200). Affirmative action is an array of policies designed to increase the participation of minorities in educational, government, business, and employment settings. In educational settings, affirmative action, in some cases, gave preference to students who fit into underrepresented groups. Affirmative action policies followed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Affirmative action was established by an executive order signed by Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965, but has been heavily modified by judicial decisions at several point since that time. Before the initiation of affirmative action policies, discriminatory enrollment and hiring procedures limited access to education and employment opportunities for African Americans and other minority groups. Through the 1960s and early 1970s, some colleges and universities implemented enrollment quotas for minority students, reserving a portion of admissions specifically for underrepresented groups. A 1976 Supreme Court decision banned quotas, but allowed for the consideration of race and ethnicity during the admissions process. In the 1990s and early 2000s, many universities stopped considering race and ethnicity during the admissions process; however, it remains a consideration at some highly selective schools (Oetzel, 2008, p. 203). Opinions regarding affirmative action vary; however, many faculty and administrators actively support admissions policies that consider race and ethnicity. Support for affirmative action often takes the form of preferential admission only when two equally qualified candidates are in place. Unqualified students do not receive admission, but if limited slots are available, underrepresented students who are equally qualified may be chosen. While gender was once an issue for affirmative action, today women make up a slightly larger number of students enrolled in higher education than men, so they are no longer underrepresented. For supporters, affirmative action provides a viable means of conscientiously creating diverse campuses and educational communities. Opponents of affirmative action suggest that it is no longer needed, and that it may favor minorities of a higher socioeconomic status over those of a lower socioeconomic status. In addition, some critics suggest that affirmative action policies have caused less-qualified individuals to be hired or enrolled over more qualified individuals. Affirmative action policies remain controversial today. Additional court decisions have been made throughout the 1980s and 1990s, largely in support of the continued existence of affirmative action, with some limitations. With tight regulation and a limited scope, affirmative action policies remain in place in many institutions; however, some states have banned affirmative action hiring and enrollment policies. These bans have resulted in fewer enrollments of African American students (The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, 2017). Challenges and Skills Maximizing Effective Communication Self-reflexivity Openness and Respect Agents of Change Maximizing effective intercultural communication in a higher education setting is essential for instructors, but also helpful for students engaging with instructors and their peers. Instructors, administrators and students in a higher education environment can begin to work to increase the effectiveness of their intercultural communication skills by working to become more self-reflexive. Self-reflexivity is the ability to look critically at yourself, your own experiences, and your own cultural biases (Oetzel, 2008, p. 204). This is a form of critical self-knowledge that enables individuals to broaden their understanding of self and others (Nagata, 2004). In addition to self-reflexivity, students and instructors must be willing to talk openly and respectfully about diversity issues, including bias, prejudice and racism. Being able and willing to discuss diversity issues helps to create a positive, accepting and safe environment for all students. To facilitate these discussions, instructors should be self-aware and understand their own perspectives, set ground rules for the conversation or discussion, and model diversity in their classes, through examples and content (Oetzel, 2008, p. 204). Individuals can act as agents of change within their own educational institutions. Instructors can advocate for improved culturally appropriate content and teaching methodologies. Students can unite to form groups to advocate for diversity issues, and individual students may find that their input can help to shape instructors’ teaching methods and content.   Conclusion Intercultural communication is an essential skill within the diverse academic community. For some students, higher education is the first situation in which they’ve encountered diversity. Instructors should, to provide the best educational outcomes and reduce educational disparity, use intercultural communication competence to reach all of their students. In this lesson, you have learned about educational outcomes and disparities. These help to emphasize the clear and ongoing need for improved intercultural communication in colleges and universities. Effective and culturally appropriate classroom management can enable instructors to connect with students and to create a classroom that encourages and embraces diversity. Classroom management includes immediacy, classroom expectations, and culturally appropriate content, like learning styles. Instructors can play a key role in creating a diverse environment by encouraging effective peer-to-peer communication. Finally, you learned about the ways intercultural communication and interaction at the individual level impacts educational institutions and organizations, and the ways in which organizations, institutions and culture can impact the individual. key terms Key Terms ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION: Looking at strengths and weaknesses of different perspectives. ACCOMMODATORS: Learners who combine concrete experience and active experimentation. ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION: The testing of information from earlier in the learning cycle. AFFECT: Positive feelings or regard. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION: Policies designed to support hiring, enrollment and access for minorities. ASSIMILATORS: Learners who combine reflexive observation and abstract conceptualization. CLASSROOM EXPECTATIONS: The instructor’s predictions and beliefs about student abilities and behavior. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: The process by which administrators and instructors maintain control of the class. CONCRETE EXPERIENCE: Lived experiences, part of the learning cycle. CONVERGERS: Traditional individualist learners, combining abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. COOPERATIVE LEARNING: Learning through self-reflection, subjective analysis and group work. CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE INSTRUCTION: Course content addressing different cultures. DIVERGERS: Learners who combine concrete experience and reflective observation. EDUCATIONAL DISPARITY: Differences in educational access or results. EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES: Measurable and trackable results from the educational process, like graduation rates. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING MODEL: Theory to explain differences in the learning process and cycle. INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION: All communication related to teaching and learning. INSTRUCTIONAL IMMEDIACY: Personal closeness in the classroom. LEARNING STYLES: Ways by which people learn most effectively. PEER-TO-PEER INTERACTION: Communication and relationships between students in the classroom, and out of the classroom. PERSONAL IMMEDIACY: The moral and ethical behavior of an instructor. REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION: Thinking about observations; part of the learning cycle. RELATIONAL IMMEDIACY: Direct contact establishing personal closeness between an instructor and student. SELF-REFLEXIVITY: The ability to look at oneself and assess one’s own behavior and motivations. SOCIAL SUPPORT: Help and comfort provided by friends, family and acquaintances. ~ scroll for more ~ close References Bollinger, L. (2002). Seven myths about affirmative action in universities. Retrieved from http://www.columbia.edu/content/seven-myths-about-affirmative-action-universities.html  Broughton, A. (2008). Minorities expected to be majority in 2050. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/08/13/census.minorities/ Clark, D. (2011). Kolb’s learning styles and experiential learning model. 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Intercultural communication: a layered approach. London: . Rajagopal, K. (2011). Culturally responsive instruction. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/111022/chapters/Culturally-Responsive-Instruction.aspx  Rocca, K. (2007). Immediacy in the classroom: research and practical implications. Retrieved from  http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/immediacy.html  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of Education Statistics, 2015 (NCES 2016-014), Chapter 3. Zinshteyn, M. (2016). College graduation rates rise, but racial gaps persist. Retrieved from http://hechingerreport.org/college-graduation-rates-rise-racial-gaps-persist-men-still-earn-women/  Image Citations "The top 16 countries in terms of proportion of PhD graduates" by http://www.conferenceboard.ca/Files/hcp/education/edu_PhD_cht1a-2013.png. Scroll for more information