Observational method.pptx

Overview Introduction Meaning Definition Importance Why to observe ? Characteristics Types of observation Advantages and disadvantages Observation Tools And Recording Devices Introduction The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioral science. In a way we all observe thing around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. It is also a process of recording the behavior patterns of people, objects, and occurrences without questioning or communicating with them. Definition Langley, P observation involves looking and listening very carefully. We all watch other people sometimes, but we don't usually watch them in order to discover particular information about their behavior. This is what observation in social science involves Gorman and Clayton defined observational studies as those that “involve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or behavior in a natural setting” Why to Observe? Observation allows the researcher to study people in their 'natural setting' without their behavior being influenced by the presence of a researcher. Observational data usually consists of detailed information about particular groups or situations. This kind of data can 'fill out' and provide a deeper, richer, understanding than survey work which tends to produce less detailed information about a larger number of people. Some methods only allow for the study of one individual at a time. Observation enables the research to study groups of people together, that is, it allows for the study of interaction between the members of a group. Characteristics of Observational Research Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observation eye ‘catches’ many things which are sighted, but attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the given study. 2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything and everything, but select the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the specific purpose of things relevant to the study. 4. It captures the natural social context in which persons’ behavior occurs. Types of Observation Participant Observation Non-participant Observation Direct Observation Indirect Observation Structured observation Unstructured observation Controlled Observation Uncontrolled Observation Archival Observation Non–Participant Observation In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner. Example: Using recording devices to examine the details of how people talk and behave together in a workplace. Participant Observation In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomenon or group which observed and he acts as both an observer and a participant. The person who are observed should not be aware of the researcher’s purpose. Then only their behavior will be ‘natural.’ Example: Sitting among and working with them in order to examine the behavior and interaction among employees Direct Observation Observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place. This method is offers flexibility and is “non–intrusive” i.e. users do what they normally do without being disturbed by the observer . The observer is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation. Example: The employee being personally monitored by the supervisor Indirect Observation This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices. Example : Recording employees movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in the work place Controlled Observation Controlled observation is carried out either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how, and when to observe. Example : Hawthorne effect, intensity of light was altered to examine its effect on employees productivity Uncontrolled Observation This does not involve over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one. Example: observing individuals while they are performing their routine tasks Structured Observation Also called systematic observation A technique in which the researcher explicitly formulates rules regarding what they should look for and how they should record behavior. These rules are articulated in what is usually referred to as an observation schedule, which bears many similarities to a structured interview schedule with closed questions. Also known as ‘naturalistic observation’ Does not entail the use of an observation schedule for the recording of behavior. The aim is to record in as much detail as possible  Un-structured Observation Archival Observation: Method which examines the already existing records of an individual, group, or culture. Examples of archival material include diaries, music lyrics, television programs, novels, and newspapers. Archival research is often used to examine the beliefs, values, and interests of a culture. Ethnographic Research - A qualitative research method Ethno = culture, graphy= writing “writing about groups of people ” Ethnography deals with the study of the diversity of human cultures in their particular cultural settings. This method has developed in early anthropological field research carried out in non-western cultures. Ethnographic Research Methods Participant-observation Key informant interviewing Use of genealogical method Gathering of cases (life-histories, conflict cases) Key Concepts Participant Observation A qualitative method which studies subjects in their own environment and uses unobtrusive methods like writing observations in a field notebook It aims to be detailed and comprehensive Methods of Participant Observation Creating diagrams, charts and maps Numerical data Written, audio, photo and video recordings Interviews and conversations Can be done individually, in pairs or in teams Can occur in a structured or unstructured setting Ethnography Skills Observing Observations are the main form of data collection Interviewing These are used to clarify the researcher’s observation Types of Observation Overt Ethnographer informs participants about their study and is transparent about research. Overt Roles Observer as Participant The researcher just observes by revealing his or her purpose of the research to the members or organization. Participant as Observer The researcher participates directly by revealing purpose. Types of Observation Covert Ethnography does not inform participants of the study and must balance ethical issue of deception. Covert Roles Complete Participant Role The researcher becomes member of the organization or group which is being studied and doesn't reveal his or her purpose to the group members but continues to do with the research at work. Complete Observer Role The researcher does not reveal the purpose of his or her activity to the members but observes about the activity carefully and carries out research. In this role, there is always a scope for misunderstanding the perspectives of the participants through observing his or her behavior without knowing actual intentions. Access Open/ Public Access The researcher does not need permission to collect data and observe the population. Examples: Communities Malls Public settings Closed Access The researcher needs permissions and introductions from the ‘gatekeeper’ of the population. Examples: Corporations Schools Hospitals Access Getting Access to closed setting Getting access to open setting Ongoing Access Problems People will have suspicion about you perhaps seeing you as an instrument of top management. People will worry what they say or do may get back to bosses or to colleagues in work organizations and t peers in other kinds of environment. If people have these worries, they may go along with your research but in fact sabotage it, engaging in deceptions, misinformation and not allowing access to back regions. Solutions Play up your credentials: Use your past work and knowledge of firm and your understanding of their problems Pass tests: Be non- judgmental. Make sure information given to you does not get back to others whether peers or bosses. You may need a role: if your role involves quite a lot of participant observation, the role will be part of your position in organization. Ethnography Ongoing Access Ethical Implications Informed consent Protection of privacy Harm to participants (psychological, physical, legal, social & economic) Deception Cultural context Ethnography Participant-Observer Roles 1. Complete observer (overt, covert) 2. Participant as observer (more as an observer than a participant) 3. Observer-as-participant (more as a participant than observer) 4. Complete participant Observation 1. Scientific inquiry using observational methods requires disciplined training and rigorous preparation 2. People don’t ‘naturally’ know how to do systematic research observations 3. Observation entails the systematic noting and recording of events, behaviors, and artifacts (objects) in the chosen setting Recording Observations 1. Keep field notebook 2. Take notes on your observations as you observe 3. Write down notes as soon as possible 4. Notes should include empirical observations and interpretations 5. Cross files –fill in dates and times you made observations. 6. Analyze and interpret your observations, discerning patterns of behavior, finding the underlying meanings in the thing you Observed In-Depth Interviewing 1. Learn to listen, think and talk almost at the same time. 2. Probe –how is that? In what way? How do you mean? What would be an example of that? 3. Review notes every night –observe activities/behavior “gaps” that must be further observed. 4. Combined with observation, interviews allow the researcher to understand the meanings people hold for their everyday activities. 3 General Categories of Interviews 1. Informal conversational interview –qualitative in-depth interview are more like the conversations than formal events with predetermined response categories. 2. The general interview guide approach and the 3. Standard open-ended interview Field Notes 1. Notebook: do not rely on memory 2. Notes should be documented right away 3. Keep a research diary to document how work is proceeding, and the time spent Types of Field Notes Mental Notes Useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes. Jotted Notes (Scratch Notes) Very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s memory about events that should be written up later. Full Field Notes Detailed notes, made as soon as possible, which will be your main data source. Write as promptly and as fully as possible. Write down information about people, events, conversations and so on. Write down initial ideas about interpretation. Stages of Field Notes • Substantive field notes focus on the main observations, conversations, experiences and interviews • Methodological information documents the subjective impressions of the researcher observed in the data-gathering context. • Analytic field notes contain preliminary stages of analysis. Here data are sorted, coded, and analyzed for the first time –gaps can be addressed and questions can be followed-up. • Data sheet should include date, place, and source of information Types of Ethnography It documents women’s lives and activities, which were previously largely seen as marginal and subsidiary to men’s; • It understands women from their perspective, so that the tendency that ‘trivializes females’ activities and thoughts, or interprets them from the standpoint of men in the society or of the male researcher’ (Reinharz 1992: 52), is militated against; and • It understands women in context. Feminist Ethnography Institutional Ethnography Ethnography may start by exploring experience of those directly involved in the institutional setting, but they are not the object of investigation. It is the aspects of the institutions relevant to the people’s experience not the people themselves , that constitute the inquiry. Virtual/ Cyber Ethnography It refers to a number of related  online research methods that adapt ethnographic methods to the study of the communities and cultures created through computer-mediated social interaction. It is carried out in the online setting(Internet).  Ethnographers are interested in studying culture often engage in fieldwork to immerse themselves in culture they are studying. They conduct their research on the World Wide Web.   In simple words it is the process of conducting and constructing an ethnography using the virtual, online environment as the site of the research. Visual Ethnography This is a subfield of social anthropology that is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media.   It relies on film and photographs to capture daily life of the group under study. Films provide visual records of passing natural events and may be used as permanent resources. Research film methodology requires the documentation of the time, place, and subject of the filming as well as the photographer’s intent and interest. Visual Ethnography Planning Observation The use of observation method require proper planning. The researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation method to the data need of selected study. He must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use of observation method. These determine the data to be collected. He must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions, events and activities that have to be observed for the required data. For each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified. Planning Observation (Cont…) The observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and mode of observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be used, and other details of the task should be determined. Observation should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected must have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and unobtrusive nature. Selected persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical training Advantages of Observation Method It permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior. There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer as the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced. Certain types of data can be collected only by observation. If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods. The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular behavior. You can generalize your results to real life situations. Disadvantages of Observation Method The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences. Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can influence the data. The researcher may only "see what they want to see." In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent. Reliability of data is low because observing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task. Recording of Data With all observation studies an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually this will involve a method of sampling. The three main sampling methods are: Event sampling. The observers decides in advance what types of behavior (events) they are interested in and record all occurrences. All other types of behavior are ignored. Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the occurrence of the specified behavior during that period only. Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected moments when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant. Everything happening before or after is ignored. Case Example Pavlov’s Study Stimulus and Response Dog and Food Observation Tools and Recording Devices Observation guides Recording sheets or checklist Schedule Field observation log Mechanical devices Observation guides : These are printed forms that provide space for recording observations. These are particularly useful when several observers are involved or when you wish to obtain comparable information from several sources or observing points. The more structured the guide, the easier it will be to tally the results. Recording sheets or checklist : These forms are used to record observations as in YES/NO option (present – not present) or on a rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something. Checklists are used when there are specific and observable items, actions or attributes to be observed. Schedule : The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the problem, the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and the operational definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of data to be collected through observation are identified. A schedule is then constructed, covering those items of data. Field observation log : This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of observation is recorded under appropriate subheading. At the time of observation , rough noting may be made, and at the end of the day, fully log may be made. The card system is flexible and facilitates arrangement and re-arrangement of items in any desired order. Mechanical devices : These may include cameras, tape recorders, videotape and electronic devices. Still, motion , sound, color and time lapse cameras give a permanent record of events. Microscopic and telescopic lens may be used in cameras. Eye cameras are common in advertising and package research. The camera makes a record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your evaluation report. Conclusion Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator‘s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies in which respondents are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other. Reference Kothari, C. R. (2008). Research methodology. (2 ed., p. 418). New Delhi: New Age Publications. Krishnaswamy , O. R. (2002). methodology of research in social science . (p. 529). Delhi: Himalaya Publishing house. Ronald , R. P., & Lynn , S. C. (2004). Basic research methods for librarians (library and information science text series). (4 ed., p. 200). New Delhi: Libraries Unlimited. Taylor, E. (n.d.). Collection evaluation data: direct observation . Retrieved from http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/G3658-5.pdf Bryman, A. (2012). Social Research Methods (4th ed.).