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GEO 702 Notes

Ryerson University
Uploaded: A year ago
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Lecture 1 Economic development is accompanied by risk (risk unknown) Technology is a paradox Technology is the means by which we have improved the living of life On the other hand, there have been many negative environmental effects Scientific knowledge is provisional Reverend Malthus: hypothesized that unchecked population growth would quickly exceed carrying capacity, leading to overpopulation and social problems Sometimes we area unable to properly diagnose potential problems and use technology to fix it completely 3 different kinds of pollution: Acute- sudden release of highly toxic substances by petrochemical products or poisonous chemicals into the environment such as arsenic kills organisms Chronic- slow release of toxic substances (ex: fertilizer) Eutrophication- release of toxic substances results in excessive growth of biomass (ex: algae) Persistent DDT dichloro-diphenyl trichloro-ethane substances (can sometimes be acute) 2 types of displacement: (displacement through different media) Spatial displacement- transferred from one location to another by air current, ocean current, etc. Temporal displacement- contaminants accumulate over a long period of time Cumulative impact Primary reason for environmental problems: Use of materials Stock, Flow, or Continuous resources Continuous resources Constant supply regardless of how much we use Input Rules for Sustainability: Use of flow resources should be less than or equal to the regenerative capacity of the system Our use of non-renewable resources should be less than or equal to the rate at which we discover new material Output Rule for Sustainability: 1) Discharge of waste should be in rate amount of concentration, which allows the receiving system enough time to biodegrade the waste without damage 4 types of conflict in resource management Cognitive conflict: different understanding of a situation -> might lead to different solutions Conflict of value: different judgements about the ends to be achieved (what are the end goals?) Interest-based conflicts: disagreement regarding the distribution of benefits and costs Behavioural conflicts: occurs when there are different personalities involved Risk occurs when the behaviour of a system is known Inaccurate information forced judgement Uncertainty occurs if the behaviour of the system is unknown and it is not possible to estimate probability of given outcome Uncertainty Indeterminacy lack of understanding of cause-and-effect relationships- risk-assessment Ignorance a situation that escapes recognition, scientific weight should help us reduce uncertainty Tragedy of the commons Garrett Hardin pastures are common resources, driven by profit, revenue, and income As a rational being, every herdsman seeks to maximize his gain (homo-economious) Positive component (due to adding 1 additional animal to pasture) blinded by negative environmental effects (ex: overgrazing) Fish is a flow resource It is applicable to open access resources Each herdsman increases his herd without limit. Overshoot & collapse Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all It reappears in problems of pollution The tragedy of the commons can be prevented by coercive laws St. Paul Island when they run out of food they put resources for them Population exploded in 1950 Resources started depleting According to Hardin “Carrying Capacity is the fundamental basis for demographic accounting” Max population Max ‘load’ Waste assimilation capacity max waste natural system can receive, absorb, biodegrade, displace without irreversible damage on the system Technology can enlarge our carrying capacity. Trade can NOT enlarge (batch disease) Appropriated carrying capacity The biophysical resource flows and waste assimilation capacity appropriated per unit time from global totals Ecological footprint “the total area of land/water required to produce the resource used and to assimilate the wastes produced” William Rees and Wackernigel put away the idea of ecological footprint Carrying capacity cannot be appropriated Lecture 2 GDP used to be the way to measure economic welfare GDP doesn’t take environmental degradation into consideration Economic development? Dual economy: Simultaneous existence of traditional rural economies Look at the social indicators for measuring development A dual economy is the existence of two separate economic sectors within one country, divided by different levels of development, technology, and different patterns of demand. Economic Development: A Global Challenge (VIDEO) Digital.films.com/playTURGH7 Who started the Grameen Bank? Bangladesh Economic development: standard of living; how rich are people Dynamics of economic development: Measuring economic development: high living standard no poverty, basic healthcare, long life, education GDP per capita, Human development index Huge income variations reflect different levels of economic development 80% of world income is generated by 10% of population 90% of population generates less than 1/5 of worlds income In 2003, some of the countries with highest income level were Norway, US,… Productivity # of goods and services produced by each worker per hour Productivity of a Taiwanese worker has increased much more than a US worker Physical capital Increase in capital stock—investment Level of investment is related to saving rate of a country Human capital stock of knowledge embedded in a person Highly skilled workers make more than others Higher skilled labour means higher productivity “Brain drain” Technology blueprint of … process Causes of underdevelopment: Angola is an example of a nation trying to overcome its colonial past (death of General in 2002 is when the country started to experience peace) Poor countries have higher population growth rates Income inequality within countries: In Guatemala richest 5th receive 60% of the nations income Poorest 5th receive less than 4/5 Kuznets Curve Brazil – (income inequality) to be poor in brazil is to be poorer than people in India, but to be rich in brazil is to be richer than the rich in North America If there is a lot of income inequality policy makers are forced to adjust it through taxation or other measures Credit Markets: less developed countries have a less developed financial system Asymmetric information- borrower has more information about the use of the funds than the lender Brameen Bank lends women mostly to women; by 1974 it had approx. 3.7 million borrowers What is economic development? Can be defined as a standard of living, quality of life of people in an area: access to clean drinking water, good healthcare services, greater life expectancy Development can also be seen as development from primitive state to more advanced and industrialized economy. It can also be defined as changed is the form of economic organization from socialist systems to capitalist system (neoliberal systems) One index of measuring development is how many people earn less than $1/day Average household debt in Canada is over $20,000 Improvement in levels of technology from rudimentary state to more advanced: Energy, manufacturing technology, etc. Key determinant of productivity: skills of the people, technology that they have, and the quality of that technology Higher technological innovation higher economic development What is dual economy? Kuznets curve: measures income vs inequality. There is a wide income gap between the rich and poor. As development progresses, the income inequality gap reduces Human capital: stock or embodiment of knowledge, education, skills, training, and experience Neo-colonialism- modern day multinational corporations that go global Explain 3 economic indicators of the level of development of countries: human development index: income per capita, education, and life expectancy Purchasing power parity (ppp): differences in cost of living Problems of GDP- used by government, rehabilitation, leakage of money Genuine progress index: takes capital income and economic welfare into account: looks for ecosystem services 3 social indicators of development: geography, proximity to coastline for exports and imports, political instability/corruption Historical factors Colonial factors: restructuring of agriculture, partitioning of continent Indian act: to control the Indians; metis, inuit, and one more tribe Non-historical factors: lack of fair legal judicatories Mohammad Yunus: founder of Grameen bank Why some countries are underdeveloped: wars-> set back clock of progress, instabilities, School of thought on development: Market plan (reconstructions for countries that have been devastated by the way) There has been a historical sequence of ideas as to how countries/regions can develop successfully 1950s = growth pole theory polarization effect-> dominant industry which will begin to provide output, where some of the output will be used as input (backward and forward linkages to other sectors) -expert processing zones (Maquiladoras) propulsive industries ex: tourism sector 1950s-60s= modernization developing countries should follow or mimic the stages of development of ___ countries industrialization, polarization, through technological transfer from food aid, capital aid mapping, transportation, family planning 1970s= dependency based on the fact that the relationship between the former colonial Claut (power) and the colonies hasn’t changed; in place of it we have neo-colonialism. Relationship is a legacy of the past, former colonial controls political activities, and many other things through their multinational corporations Import substitution industries) is a trade and economic policy which advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production 1980-2000 = World systems theory put forward by Emmanuel Wallerstain (only 1 world system: all countries are competing for better or worse: economically, technologically, politically, and culturally) Some countries are advantaged while other are disadvantaged “Dutch disease”-> gain in one economic area means losses in another 1980s=Neo-liberal Counterrevolution Renold Regan and ___ Free market economies and trade liberalization will increase competition and innovation Remove subsidies, and all barriers for trade 1990s= Sustainable development Processes of Economic Development: Advantages of economic activities: Agglomeration effects Ex:Santa Clara, San Joselot of high tech industries Kitchener, Waterloo, Cambridge Blackberry Forward linkages new firms take semi-processed goods of an existing company firm and use it as input for their company Backward linkages if firms image that produce the raw materials/supplies as well as machineries to an existing company Ex: hotel industry (if hotels are increasing wine sales, go back to winery and ask for more wine supply, and the winers go back to grid farmers) Ancillary activities form of activities that include maintance, repairs, securities, transportation, other services Economies of scale (external economies) cost savings resulting from the advantages that are derived from circumstances beyond the firms own organization and methods of protection (control of the firm) Development in the area will provide additional training, investors will bring money, technical schools evolving, and eventually the urban areas will expand Fixed social capital f- Urbanization economies Gunnar Myrdal (Swedish economists) Cumulative causation in core regions Ex: potential that new technologies will be transferred from the core to the surrounding area and there will also be investment capital “Spread effect” (or trickle-down effect in peripheral regions) growth will spread to the surrounding areas Import substitution industries (ex: china b/c they are able to learn quickly and make it their own) Disadvantages of economic activities Crumbling infrastructure Agglomeration diseconomies: disadvantages associated with growth in an area (ex: traffic congestion, higher cost of rent or inflation, high cost of waste production, greater traffic policing, or city planning problem) De-industrialization: occurs when factories or companies close down, downsize, and relocate decrease the productive capacity Creative destruction: transferring of investment capital of decline to a new region (ghost towns-ex. Detroit) Brownfield sites Gunnar Myrdal (Swedish economist) “Backwash effect” in peripheral regions Brain drain when educated people migrate from rural areas to urban cities Creative destruction -Transfer of investment, capital decline to a new region - “Ghost town” ex: Detroit Lecture 3 Social indicators: brain drain Balanced, healthful dietKawashiorkor , marasmus (child that is facing stunted growth) -Too much sugar diabetes, too much salt hyper tension and high blood pressure, too much fat obesity Adequate medical care - Afghanistan vs. Sweden / US (longer wait time )vs. Cuba (access to good medical services) Environmental sanitation and disease control Sufficient educational opportunities 3 key areas: -professor/student ratio, advanced countries: small class sizes while developing countries: larger class sizes -when the region has gender balance, we find that due to population growth there is an inability for parents to send all their children to school… more severe in Islamic countries. Women are more productive in work activities - Remuneration of payment, wages and salaries for teachers Individual freedom of conscience and freedom from fear (freedom of conscience allows you to chase your dreams this freedom is often restricted which lowers the chance for you to get what you want out of life) Decent housing Social and political milieus promoting equality Sustainable development: meeting the needs of present generations without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs economic: growth social: Involves economic, social & environmental components oxymoron- is sustainable development contradictory? Cornucopian= horn of plenty (endless supply of materials) associated with Green folk stories/mythology Cassandras= predictions are not believed Earth Summit – Rio Dejenero Sustainable development is an oxymoron - Make haste slowly If we continue the current rate of consumption in the rate of population growth, there will be dire consequences Sustainable Development: “meeting the needs of the present without compromising ability of future generation to meet their own needs” It reconciles environment and development Sustainable development involves intra-/inter-generational justice It is anthropocentric. It views human needs and well-being that incorporates non-economic values Re-orienting technology and managing risks Intergenerational equity every generation should deal with their own waste. Leave resources in good quantity and quality so future generations can use it…. Moral and ethical call Also, we should not leave waste materials for future generations to deal with… so who should deal with that in the future? Intergenerational equity everyone should be mindful of his/her action on their neighbour… no victims/no victors 2 major principles: Polluter pay principal companies that cause pollution should be responsible for paying for the cost of clean-up ex: BP Precautionary Principal lack of scientific knowledge should not be used as a business to postpone actions that will prevent environmental harm/crisis Agriculture and food production systems 1.Population pressure hypothesis growing human population and search for wild food … People will start fighting over food and cause them to settle down and cultivate 2. Oasis hypothesis: people gathering around water bodies due to drought Dump heap: garbage Cultural progression hypothesis: every society moves from primitive, traditional state to more advanced, industrialized, and urban state Iroquois St. Lawrence river valley Yangize River- china, rice Potatoes- South America Sunflower- Canada Millet- West Africa Nile valley Egypt Squash corn, etc. Clovis culture Soil as a system: Soil consists of mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water Dead and living microorganism, decaying matter Bacteria, algae, earthworms, insects, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles Agriculture Revolutions: First agriculture revolution Second agriculture revolution Intensification … (Crop rotational practice using different types of crops on the same land) … Use of natural means of fertilizer (Clover- type of plant that fixes nitrogen in soil replenishes soil fertility; used a lot in western and eastern Europe) 2nd agricultural revolution happened when industrial manufacturing was taking place in Europe… a lot of people were working in factories in Europe- Reciprocal relationship because manufacturing industries provided the rules for farming … Hoe = flat metal plate for farming (rudimentary tools-agriculture, horse-drawn carts) Third agriculture revolution development of tracktorization, mechanization (designed to remove rocks from the ground) Reapers (remove stray/hay or other materials from ground) Deer plows Development of chemical ingredient/input to food production pesticides, chlorines, insecticides, fungicide, rodenticides, weedicides, herbicides Crow benefits Ottawa paid $3.6 mill subsidy to Canadian Pacific Railway to build a rail line through the Crow’s Nest Pass 1897 : Abolished in 1995 Swidden agriculture Subsistence, shifting cultivation Pastoral nomadism raising of farm animals for food, clothing, and shelter Types of pastoralism: Sedentary (take animals to field to graze and bring them back to home--- settled agriculture) Nomads (roam systematically in search of fodder or pasture and water) Genetically modified organism (GMOs) Industrial agriculture VIDEO: Food Inc. 1940s McDonalds used to be a Drive-In changed it to a manufacturing company Perdue pickers they take the chickens from the chicken houses at night to the processing plant Typical grower earns $18,000 /year Corn is main component in beef ingredients Teaching fish how to eat corn 200,000 pounds of meat is eaten by average American per year High corn diet ecoli &certain mutation occurs (which is acid resistant) Many beef recall E.coli spinach, apple juice, leafy greens Child died in 12 days because of eating food (E.Coli) They didn’t recall the meat until 16 days after he died (Kevin’s Law) Lecture 4 Green Revolution: classical breeding Transgenic ally modified organisms Recombinant DNA technology (delete genes or add genes that add flavour – transfer genes from one species to another) The term is widely used since the 1940s to describe the effort to increase the diversity crop yields in agriculturally less advanced regions of the world Normann Borlaug helped Mexican farmers grow wheat and grain Brought high yielding crops that can adapt to pest and disease infestation High- yielding modern varieties (MV) of wheat, maize, and rice characterized the green revolution Green revolution seeds were more responsive to controlled irrigation and synthetic fertilizers and the miracle seeds spread throughout developing world Food Inc. Benefits of biotechnology: Intensification (increase yield per hectare of land which is cultivated maximize use of soil in order to increase productivity) and Intensification (ex: marginalized land) Reduce the acquisition of new lands for cultivation Advantage: Precision farming- genes lethal to pests eg. Bt crops that were engineered to include their own Bt gene (protein that is lethal to insects nearby the crop) Requires every crop to have their own inbuilt pesticide Monarch butterflies were dying in huge numberswhen you take the pollen from cone… (Pollen kills monarch butterflies) The Svalbard Global Seed Vault genetically modified systems selects the best seed… over time we forget about traditional varieties. “Doomsday” Seed Vault a secure seed bank in the Norwegian island… holds spare copies of seeds in gene banks workwide Problems of Green Revolution: Excessive use of water, fuels, chemical fertilizers and pesticides (crops grow faster) Biodiversity loss through monoculture (planting one type of seed can result in extinction of species) We need polyculture many seeds Disease and pests Narrowing human diet (the kind of food we eat doesn’t cater for the 6 types of food we need in our everyday diet) -Some farmers are converting food crops to energy crops (Ex: canola) the crops can be transferred to ethanol production Bio-fuels affect food availability Biotech companies like Monsanto into bio-powers (owning seeds can dictate the supply for the market- forcing us to eat what we don’t want) Food Inc. in factory farms, all the chickens heads are poked & injected with hormones… which makes the hormones bio magnify (build up) in living beings from lower tropic levels to higher tropic levels What is organic farming? The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) World Health Organization (WHO) define organic farming as: “A holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people” a system that is complex and interdependent in a self-sustaining way. Doesn’t require use of fossil fuel- time consuming Food is a social construct Can Organic farming feed the world: Studies show that less industrialized countries stands to benefit from organic farming. Eg Brazil, Mexico, etc. deeper roots Currently we use around 10 calories of fossil energy to produce on calorie of food energy Organic farming enhances soil fertility and encourages crops to develop deep roots Water use; organic farms rely on drought-tolerant species grown in the tropic and water-demanding crops in the temperate regions too much irrigation high salt (salinization) Localization: Organic farming prevents global commodity chains Farmers in GTA areas are out of business: DIRTI High level of depreciation, High level of inflation, high levels or repair of equipment, Taxes, Insurance TPP: trans pacific partnership Avoid pesticides: Healthy plant grown in healthy soil will be more resistant to pest damage Nutritious benefits: Organic crops contain higher levels of 21 essential nutrients than conventionally grown counterparts Seed-saving: seeds are not just a source of food, they are living testimony to more than 10,000 years of agriculture domestication Job creation: Organic farming relies on labour-intensive management practices Against organic farming: Expensive Crop rotation= planting different types of plants on the same parcel of land at different times Advantage: helps restore soil fertility and nutrients to soil…. Also breaks cycle of pests and diseases Contour farming= plowing furrows along the train of hills… mostly gentle sloping hills (East of Toronto) Advantage: soil erosion is trapped especially real erosion (concentrated surface runoff within narrow channels) Gullies deeps roofs or trenches that occur on the surface of the land as a result of runoff Terracing= kind of process where we create a series of steps along a train of steep slopes and they have raised edges (embankment) which trap runoff and hold water on the horizontal plane, once we have enough moisture we can plant crops. (East Asia) Advantage: helps with erosion Intercropping= plant multiple crops on the same parcel of land at the same time Shelterbelts= farming practice which serves as wind break which are planted along the edges of fields to slow the wind Reduced tillage= Furrows are cut in the soil, a seed is dropped in and the furrow is closed.. leave furrows in the soil and when they begin to decompose it restores nutrients to soil, enhances pollination Alley cropping= shelterbelts +intercropping Outline: Urbanization Central Place Theory Types of cities Socio-economic organization Urban sprawl and processes Urban structure and immigration Social problems in inner Canadian cities Problems of post-industrial cities CITIES: Proximity to rivers, climate conditions, location within a particular resource/reason EX: Calgary owns its existence due to Canadian Pacific Railway Montreal owns its existence due to the junction of 2 major riversused for fair trade in the early days of Canadian settlement (Quebec city=New France) Urbanization Urban Form (structure and organization of cities includes: built environment, layout of streets, different land use types) -Street level, middle level, top level (residence, apartment) - Urban retrofitting programs (renovate old apartments to make them energy efficient) Good ones are gentrification programs rehabilitation of old urban areas in order to attract wealthy class to cities Urban Ecology (described as the demographic and ethnical composition of urban areas) Urbanism (way of life that is fashioned from a urban setting built with attitude and behaviour of people) In most urban areas, there’s a lot of freedom such as freedom of lifestyle Values are different -religion, folklore, language…. 25 to 200 ethnic groups in Canada Canada attracts the crème of intellectuals (adds to the work force calibre and increases productivity) At the same time, it brings a lot of need for political system to be adjusted Multicultural act of 1988 (creates a more tolerable and acceptable society)

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