Student Diversity Culture, Language, Gender and Exceptionalities - Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3: Student Diversity: Culture, Language, Gender and Exceptionalities Introduction to Teaching: Becoming a Professional 5th Edition Don P. Kauchak and Paul D. Eggen Learner Diversity Learner Diversity: The Group and individual differences we see in our students Sources of Learner Diversity: Culture: The knowledge, attitudes, values, and customs that characterize a social group Language: The traditional way of communicating with others Gender: Differences between girls and boys Exceptionalities: Characteristics in students resulting in them needing extra help to reach their full potential Population Statistics What fraction of the population in the United States are members of cultural minorities? More than a third What percentage of the school population are members of cultural minorities? About 40 percent Children of color are what percent of the school population in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Detroit, and Baltimore? More than 90 percent In 2010, and for the first time in history, what proportion of 3-year-olds in our country were white? Less than half Our Students’ Heritage In the early 1900’s, from where did most immigrants come? a. Asia b. Central and South America c. The Caribbean d. Europe Europe From where have more recent immigrants come? a. Asia b. Central and South America c. The Caribbean d. Europe About 40 percent come from Central and South America. About 25 percent come from Asia. About 10 percent come from the Caribbean. Less than 15 percent come from Europe. Percentages of Public School Students By Race and Ethnicity White: 55% Black: 15% Hispanic: 22% Asian/Pacific Islander/Alaska Native: 5% Students of more than one race: 3%. Conclusions About Culture People from all cultures learn in fundamentally the same way. Parents of cultural minorities care deeply about their children and want them to succeed in school. Students may enter our classrooms with different ways of acting and believing. Communicating that all cultures are valued and respected and celebrating cultural diversity are effective ways of capitalizing on the varied experiences students bring to school. Culturally Responsive Teaching Jack Hawkins is beginning a lesson in his pre-algebra class. “Did you know that Omar Khayyam, a Persian mathematician, way back more than a thousand years ago, did some very important work in algebra. Persia is now called Iran, and this is where Sadira and Saeed are from,” he comments, gesturing to two of the students in his class, and then going to a map at the front of his room to point out the location of present day Iran. Aren’t we lucky to have people with Sadira’s and Saeed’s backgrounds in our class? He then writes Kendra has some new Facebook friends, and Sally has two more new friends than does Kendra. Together they have 8 new friends. How many new friends does each have? “What do you notice about the problem? . . . Michael?” He continues. 1. Identify one simple thing Jack did in his instruction that is an essential part of culturally responsive teaching. 2. Identify a second simple strategy Jack used that can be effective with students who are members of cultural minorities. Culturally Responsive Teaching Continued 1. Identify one simple thing Jack did in his instruction that is an essential part of culturally responsive teaching. By emphasizing the contributions of Omar Khayyam, an historical member of Sadira’s and Saeed’s culture, Jack communicated that he respected and valued cultural differences in his students. Making comments, such as Jack did, is quite easy; it only requires some awareness and sensitivity. And, as important—it works. All people, including students, want to be valued and respected, and this simple move can be very effective. 2. Identify a second simple strategy Jack used that can be effective with students who are members of cultural minorities. Asking open-ended questions that have a variety of acceptable answers [such as “What do you notice about the problem?” which Jack asked] can be especially effective with members of cultural minorities. You can also ask students what they already know about a topic, which builds on their backgrounds—a third important aspect of culturally responsive teaching. Linguistic Diversity By 2030 what proportion of the school population will be enrolled in programs designed to teach English? More than 40% What obstacles exist for EL students (English Learners)? They are more likely than non-EL students to be referred for special education services. They are more likely to drop out of school. They tend to lag behind in achievement. Teaching Students Who are Members of Cultural Minorities and EL’s Identify four specific things you can do to maximize learning for your students who are members of cultural minorities or students who are EL’s. Get to know your students by learning their names as quickly as possible and periodically make personal comments, such as complimenting a new hair style or different way of dressing. Call on everyone in class as equally as possible, and use open-ended questions [questions such as “What do you see?” or “How are these items similar or different?”] which virtually ensure acceptable answers. Use concrete examples that can serve as reference points for language development, and include your students and their interests in your examples. Mix whole-group and small group instruction to provide students with practice using language. Teaching Students Who are Members of Cultural Minorities and EL’s Continued No substitute for practice exists, so students must be given opportunities to practice language. So, any snickering, laughter, or derisive comments directed toward students who struggle with language should be absolutely forbidden, and violations of the rule should be enforced. Emotional needs, such as the need to feel safe and be accepted, precede intellectual needs, such as the need for academic achievement, and members of cultural minorities sometimes feel as if they are neither wanted nor welcome in school. Making them feel welcome and valued can be one of the most important contributions you can make to their education. Discussion Questions 1-4 1. Is multicultural education more important at some grade levels than at others? Why or why not? Is multicultural education more important in some content areas than in others? Why or why not? 2. Which approach to teaching English to EL students makes the most sense in the teaching setting where you hope to find your first job? Why? What kinds of instructional strategies are effective for helping EL students learn English? Which are ineffective? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bilingual education? Should it play a larger role in EL instruction? 4. Are “English-only” laws a good idea? What advantages and disadvantages exist for this type of legislation? Achievement Characteristics of Boys and Girls Which of the following statements are true? 1. Women earn more bachelors and masters degrees in our nation’s colleges than do boys. 2. Boys are referred for disciplinary actions much more often than are girls. 3. Boys are in more special education classes and are held back in grade more often than are girls. 4. Boys drop out of school more often than do girls. 5. Boys score higher on the SAT and ACT than do girls. 6. Many more boys than girls choose engineering and computer science as college majors. All of the statements are true. Responding to Your Students’ Gender Differences 1. Communicate openly with your students about gender issues and concerns. Conduct class discussions about boys’ and girls’ views, needs, and perceptions of how they’re treated. 2. Eliminate gender bias in instructional activities. Call on boys and girls as equally as possible and give them similar roles in all learning activities. 3. Present students with non-stereotypical role models. Invite female engineers and male nurses into your class to talk to your students. Discussion Questions 5 and 6 5. Should teachers have boys and girls line up by sex or compete in games by sex? Why or why not? 6. Are single-sex classrooms a good idea? What about single-sex schools? Why or why not? If you were hired to teach in a single-sex school or classroom, how would you change the way you teach? Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Dimension Linguistic Intelligence Sensitivity to the meaning and order of words and the ability to use language. Poet, journalist    Logical-mathematical Intelligence The ability to use long chains of reasoning and work effectively with numbers and symbols. Scientist, mathematician   Musical Intelligence Sensitivity to pitch, melody, and tone Composer, singer   Spatial Intelligence The ability to accurately visualize and perceive the world. Sculptor, architect Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Cont. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence The ability to use the body in coordinated movements and handle objects with dexterity. Dancer, athlete Interpersonal Intelligence An understanding of social interactions among people Therapist, salesperson Intrapersonal Intelligence Insight into one’s own strengths and weaknesses. A clear understanding of self. Self-aware individual Naturalistic Intelligence The ability to recognize similarities and differences in the physical world. Biologist, anthropologist Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence The ability to manage our emotions so we can cope with our world and accomplish goals. What are indicators of high emotional intelligence? Controlling impulses to behave in socially unacceptable ways (such as controlling the impulse to tell another person off after a rude remark) Managing negative emotions (such as forgetting about the rude remark after initially feeling angry about it) Behaving in socially acceptable ways (such as deciding to talk calmly to the person about the remark, or simply leaving the situation) Learning Styles Like other reviewers who pay close attention to the research literature, I do not see much validity in the claims made by those who urge teachers to assess their students with learning style inventories and follow with differentiated curriculum and instruction. First, the research bases encouraging these urgings are thin to nonexistent. Second, a single teacher working with 20 or more students does not have time to plan and implement much individualized instruction (Brophy, 2010, p. 283). Others speak more strongly. “I think learning styles represents one of the more wasteful and misleading pervasive myths of the last 20 years” (Clark, 2010, p. 10). However, learning styles reminds us that: we should vary our instruction, since no instructional strategy works for all students, or even the same students all the time. we should help our students understand how they learn most effectively, something that they aren’t initially good at. our students differ in ability, motivation, background experiences, needs, and insecurities. The concept of learning style can sensitize us to these differences. Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Public Law 94-142 (the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) , which was passed in 1975, is a piece of federal legislation designed to ensure that learners with exceptionalities received the best quality education possible. The act was a response to findings indicating that separating these students from their peers resulted in a lower level of learning and development. As a result of this act and amendments that followed, you—as a general education classroom teacher—are certain to have students with exceptionalities in your classroom. Now is the time to begin preparing to work with these students. Provisions of IDEA A Free and Appropriate Public Education: IDEA asserts that all students can learn and everyone is entitled to a free and appropriate public education. Least Restrictive Environment: IDEA requires that all students be educated in as typical an environment as possible that meets their learning needs. Fair and Nondiscriminatory Evaluation: IDEA requires that tests be given in students’ native languages by qualified personnel, and no single instrument will be used as the basis for placement. Due Process and Parents’ Rights: IDEA requires that parents have the right to be involved in placing their children in special programs, that they have access to school records, and that they can obtain an independent evaluation of their child. Individualized Education Program: IDEA requires that an individually prescribed instructional plan be devised for all students with exceptionalities. The Most Common Categories of Disabilities More than three fourths of students with exceptionalities fall into the following categories: Learning disabilities Difficulties in acquiring and using listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Communication disorders Struggles with receiving and understanding information from others and expressing own ideas or questions Intellectual disabilities (Historically called mental retardation) Difficulties in learning, and problems with adaptive skills, such as communication, self-care, and social interaction. Behavior disorders Displays of serious and persistent age-inappropriate behaviors that result in social conflict, personal unhappiness, and school failure. Identifying Learning Problems in Students Identify the learning problem best illustrated in each of the following examples: Jackie struggles with her classwork and seems immature for her age. She seems to know very little about the world, and she has a difficult time understanding concepts that aren’t concrete. She is a poor reader. Sonja is withdrawn, and rarely speaks in class. She is very timid and doesn’t seem to have any friends. Raul has a very difficult time with reading. He reverses words and often loses his place when he reads. Fortunately, he is a very good math student, however. Answers Jackie’s lack of knowledge about the world, her immaturity, poor reading ability, and inability to understand abstract concepts suggest an intellectual disability. Sonja’s social isolation, timid behavior, and isolation are indicators of an internalizing behavior disorder. Raul’s problems with reading, and the fact that he is a good math students suggests that he has a specific learning disability in reading. Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Ability to learn more quickly and independently than their peers Advanced language, reading, and vocabulary skills More highly developed learning and metacognitive strategies Higher motivation on challenging tasks and less on easy ones High personal standards of achievement Effective Instruction for Learners With Exceptionalities How should you modify your instruction when you work with students having exceptionalities? Little evidence exists to indicate that learners with exceptionalities should be taught in ways that are fundamentally different from effective instruction for all students. It suggests that the strategies that work for students in general also work with students having exceptionalities. These strategies should simply be implemented more carefully and more thoroughly. “In general, the classroom management and instruction approaches that are effective with special students tend to be the same ones that are effective with other students” (Good & Brophy, 2008, p. 223). Discussion Questions 7-11 7. Think about the dimensions of intelligence identified by experts: a) abstract thinking and reasoning, b) problem-solving ability and c) capacity to acquire knowledge. Which do you think is most important in today's world? Least? Why? What implications does your answer have for how you’ll teach in your own classroom? 8. What implications does Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences have for teachers at different grade levels and in different content areas? In answering this question, relate your answer to the grade level and content area(s) in which you plan to teach. 9. How do learning styles relate to Gardner's Multiple Intelligences? Do you think these differences are primarily influenced by genetics or by the environment? Explain. 10. Research evidence seems to indicate that attempting to adapt instruction to students’ learning styles is wasted effort. What is your view with respect to this issue? 11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of full-time inclusion in the regular education classroom? Should it be used with all students with exceptionalities? Click to edit Master title style Click to edit Master subtitle style Types of Bilingual Programs (slide 1 of 3) Requires teachers trained in first language. Literacy skills in first language may be lost. Maintains first language. Transition to English is eased by gradual approach. Transitional: Students learn to read in first language, with supplemental instruction in English, followed by enrollment in regular classrooms. Requires teachers trained in first language. Acquisition of English may be slowed. Students become literate in two languages Bilingual Maintenance: Students maintain the first language with literacy activities in the first language while learning English Disadvantage Advantage Type of Program Types of Bilingual Programs (slide 2 of 3) . Segregates students. Students may not be ready for content instruction in English. Easier to administer because it only requires pullout teachers to have EL expertise. English as a Second Language: Pullout programs in which students are provided with supplemental English instruction together with regular instruction Disadvantage Advantage Type of Program Types of Bilingual Programs (slide 3 of 3) Type of Program Advantage Disadvantage Immersion: Places students in classrooms where only English is spoken, with few or no linguistic aids Increased exposure to new language and multiple opportunities to use it. Sink or swim approach may be overwhelming and leave students confused and discouraged.. CHAPTER 3: Student Diversity: Culture, Language, Gender and Exceptionalities Introduction to Teaching: Becoming a Professional 5th Edition Don P. Kauchak and Paul D. Eggen Learner Diversity Learner Diversity: The Group and individual differences we see in our students Sources of Learner Diversity: Culture: The knowledge, attitudes, values, and customs that characterize a social group Language: The traditional way of communicating with others Gender: Differences between girls and boys Exceptionalities: Characteristics in students resulting in them needing extra help to reach their full potential Population Statistics What fraction of the population in the United States are members of cultural minorities? More than a third What percentage of the school population are members of cultural minorities? About 40 percent Children of color are what percent of the school population in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Detroit, and Baltimore? More than 90 percent In 2010, and for the first time in history, what proportion of 3-year-olds in our country were white? Less than half Our Students’ Heritage In the early 1900’s, from where did most immigrants come? a. Asia b. Central and South America c. The Caribbean d. Europe Europe From where have more recent immigrants come? a. Asia b. Central and South America c. The Caribbean d. Europe About 40 percent come from Central and South America. About 25 percent come from Asia. About 10 percent come from the Caribbean. Less than 15 percent come from Europe. Percentages of Public School Students By Race and Ethnicity White: 55% Black: 15% Hispanic: 22% Asian/Pacific Islander/Alaska Native: 5% Students of more than one race: 3%. Conclusions About Culture People from all cultures learn in fundamentally the same way. Parents of cultural minorities care deeply about their children and want them to succeed in school. Students may enter our classrooms with different ways of acting and believing. Communicating that all cultures are valued and respected and celebrating cultural diversity are effective ways of capitalizing on the varied experiences students bring to school. Culturally Responsive Teaching Jack Hawkins is beginning a lesson in his pre-algebra class. “Did you know that Omar Khayyam, a Persian mathematician, way back more than a thousand years ago, did some very important work in algebra. Persia is now called Iran, and this is where Sadira and Saeed are from,” he comments, gesturing to two of the students in his class, and then going to a map at the front of his room to point out the location of present day Iran. Aren’t we lucky to have people with Sadira’s and Saeed’s backgrounds in our class? He then writes Kendra has some new Facebook friends, and Sally has two more new friends than does Kendra. Together they have 8 new friends. How many new friends does each have? “What do you notice about the problem? . . . Michael?” He continues. 1. Identify one simple thing Jack did in his instruction that is an essential part of culturally responsive teaching. 2. Identify a second simple strategy Jack used that can be effective with students who are members of cultural minorities. Culturally Responsive Teaching Continued 1. Identify one simple thing Jack did in his instruction that is an essential part of culturally responsive teaching. By emphasizing the contributions of Omar Khayyam, an historical member of Sadira’s and Saeed’s culture, Jack communicated that he respected and valued cultural differences in his students. Making comments, such as Jack did, is quite easy; it only requires some awareness and sensitivity. And, as important—it works. All people, including students, want to be valued and respected, and this simple move can be very effective. 2. Identify a second simple strategy Jack used that can be effective with students who are members of cultural minorities. Asking open-ended questions that have a variety of acceptable answers [such as “What do you notice about the problem?” which Jack asked] can be especially effective with members of cultural minorities. You can also ask students what they already know about a topic, which builds on their backgrounds—a third important aspect of culturally responsive teaching. Linguistic Diversity By 2030 what proportion of the school population will be enrolled in programs designed to teach English? More than 40% What obstacles exist for EL students (English Learners)? They are more likely than non-EL students to be referred for special education services. They are more likely to drop out of school. They tend to lag behind in achievement. Teaching Students Who are Members of Cultural Minorities and EL’s Identify four specific things you can do to maximize learning for your students who are members of cultural minorities or students who are EL’s. Get to know your students by learning their names as quickly as possible and periodically make personal comments, such as complimenting a new hair style or different way of dressing. Call on everyone in class as equally as possible, and use open-ended questions [questions such as “What do you see?” or “How are these items similar or different?”] which virtually ensure acceptable answers. Use concrete examples that can serve as reference points for language development, and include your students and their interests in your examples. Mix whole-group and small group instruction to provide students with practice using language. Teaching Students Who are Members of Cultural Minorities and EL’s Continued No substitute for practice exists, so students must be given opportunities to practice language. So, any snickering, laughter, or derisive comments directed toward students who struggle with language should be absolutely forbidden, and violations of the rule should be enforced. Emotional needs, such as the need to feel safe and be accepted, precede intellectual needs, such as the need for academic achievement, and members of cultural minorities sometimes feel as if they are neither wanted nor welcome in school. Making them feel welcome and valued can be one of the most important contributions you can make to their education. Discussion Questions 1-4 1. Is multicultural education more important at some grade levels than at others? Why or why not? Is multicultural education more important in some content areas than in others? Why or why not? 2. Which approach to teaching English to EL students makes the most sense in the teaching setting where you hope to find your first job? Why? What kinds of instructional strategies are effective for helping EL students learn English? Which are ineffective? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bilingual education? Should it play a larger role in EL instruction? 4. Are “English-only” laws a good idea? What advantages and disadvantages exist for this type of legislation? Achievement Characteristics of Boys and Girls Which of the following statements are true? 1. Women earn more bachelors and masters degrees in our nation’s colleges than do boys. 2. Boys are referred for disciplinary actions much more often than are girls. 3. Boys are in more special education classes and are held back in grade more often than are girls. 4. Boys drop out of school more often than do girls. 5. Boys score higher on the SAT and ACT than do girls. 6. Many more boys than girls choose engineering and computer science as college majors. All of the statements are true. Responding to Your Students’ Gender Differences 1. Communicate openly with your students about gender issues and concerns. Conduct class discussions about boys’ and girls’ views, needs, and perceptions of how they’re treated. 2. Eliminate gender bias in instructional activities. Call on boys and girls as equally as possible and give them similar roles in all learning activities. 3. Present students with non-stereotypical role models. Invite female engineers and male nurses into your class to talk to your students. Discussion Questions 5 and 6 5. Should teachers have boys and girls line up by sex or compete in games by sex? Why or why not? 6. Are single-sex classrooms a good idea? What about single-sex schools? Why or why not? If you were hired to teach in a single-sex school or classroom, how would you change the way you teach? Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Dimension Linguistic Intelligence Sensitivity to the meaning and order of words and the ability to use language. Poet, journalist    Logical-mathematical Intelligence The ability to use long chains of reasoning and work effectively with numbers and symbols. Scientist, mathematician   Musical Intelligence Sensitivity to pitch, melody, and tone Composer, singer   Spatial Intelligence The ability to accurately visualize and perceive the world. Sculptor, architect Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Cont. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence The ability to use the body in coordinated movements and handle objects with dexterity. Dancer, athlete Interpersonal Intelligence An understanding of social interactions among people Therapist, salesperson Intrapersonal Intelligence Insight into one’s own strengths and weaknesses. A clear understanding of self. Self-aware individual Naturalistic Intelligence The ability to recognize similarities and differences in the physical world. Biologist, anthropologist Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence The ability to manage our emotions so we can cope with our world and accomplish goals. What are indicators of high emotional intelligence? Controlling impulses to behave in socially unacceptable ways (such as controlling the impulse to tell another person off after a rude remark) Managing negative emotions (such as forgetting about the rude remark after initially feeling angry about it) Behaving in socially acceptable ways (such as deciding to talk calmly to the person about the remark, or simply leaving the situation) Learning Styles Like other reviewers who pay close attention to the research literature, I do not see much validity in the claims made by those who urge teachers to assess their students with learning style inventories and follow with differentiated curriculum and instruction. First, the research bases encouraging these urgings are thin to nonexistent. Second, a single teacher working with 20 or more students does not have time to plan and implement much individualized instruction (Brophy, 2010, p. 283). Others speak more strongly. “I think learning styles represents one of the more wasteful and misleading pervasive myths of the last 20 years” (Clark, 2010, p. 10). However, learning styles reminds us that: we should vary our instruction, since no instructional strategy works for all students, or even the same students all the time. we should help our students understand how they learn most effectively, something that they aren’t initially good at. our students differ in ability, motivation, background experiences, needs, and insecurities. The concept of learning style can sensitize us to these differences. Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Public Law 94-142 (the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) , which was passed in 1975, is a piece of federal legislation designed to ensure that learners with exceptionalities received the best quality education possible. The act was a response to findings indicating that separating these students from their peers resulted in a lower level of learning and development. As a result of this act and amendments that followed, you—as a general education classroom teacher—are certain to have students with exceptionalities in your classroom. Now is the time to begin preparing to work with these students. Provisions of IDEA A Free and Appropriate Public Education: IDEA asserts that all students can learn and everyone is entitled to a free and appropriate public education. Least Restrictive Environment: IDEA requires that all students be educated in as typical an environment as possible that meets their learning needs. Fair and Nondiscriminatory Evaluation: IDEA requires that tests be given in students’ native languages by qualified personnel, and no single instrument will be used as the basis for placement. Due Process and Parents’ Rights: IDEA requires that parents have the right to be involved in placing their children in special programs, that they have access to school records, and that they can obtain an independent evaluation of their child. Individualized Education Program: IDEA requires that an individually prescribed instructional plan be devised for all students with exceptionalities. The Most Common Categories of Disabilities More than three fourths of students with exceptionalities fall into the following categories: Learning disabilities Difficulties in acquiring and using listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Communication disorders Struggles with receiving and understanding information from others and expressing own ideas or questions Intellectual disabilities (Historically called mental retardation) Difficulties in learning, and problems with adaptive skills, such as communication, self-care, and social interaction. Behavior disorders Displays of serious and persistent age-inappropriate behaviors that result in social conflict, personal unhappiness, and school failure. Identifying Learning Problems in Students Identify the learning problem best illustrated in each of the following examples: Jackie struggles with her classwork and seems immature for her age. She seems to know very little about the world, and she has a difficult time understanding concepts that aren’t concrete. She is a poor reader. Sonja is withdrawn, and rarely speaks in class. She is very timid and doesn’t seem to have any friends. Raul has a very difficult time with reading. He reverses words and often loses his place when he reads. Fortunately, he is a very good math student, however. Answers Jackie’s lack of knowledge about the world, her immaturity, poor reading ability, and inability to understand abstract concepts suggest an intellectual disability. Sonja’s social isolation, timid behavior, and isolation are indicators of an internalizing behavior disorder. Raul’s problems with reading, and the fact that he is a good math students suggests that he has a specific learning disability in reading. Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Ability to learn more quickly and independently than their peers Advanced language, reading, and vocabulary skills More highly developed learning and metacognitive strategies Higher motivation on challenging tasks and less on easy ones High personal standards of achievement Effective Instruction for Learners With Exceptionalities How should you modify your instruction when you work with students having exceptionalities? Little evidence exists to indicate that learners with exceptionalities should be taught in ways that are fundamentally different from effective instruction for all students. It suggests that the strategies that work for students in general also work with students having exceptionalities. These strategies should simply be implemented more carefully and more thoroughly. “In general, the classroom management and instruction approaches that are effective with special students tend to be the same ones that are effective with other students” (Good & Brophy, 2008, p. 223). Discussion Questions 7-11 7. Think about the dimensions of intelligence identified by experts: a) abstract thinking and reasoning, b) problem-solving ability and c) capacity to acquire knowledge. Which do you think is most important in today's world? Least? Why? What implications does your answer have for how you’ll teach in your own classroom? 8. What implications does Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences have for teachers at different grade levels and in different content areas? In answering this question, relate your answer to the grade level and content area(s) in which you plan to teach. 9. How do learning styles relate to Gardner's Multiple Intelligences? Do you think these differences are primarily influenced by genetics or by the environment? Explain. 10. Research evidence seems to indicate that attempting to adapt instruction to students’ learning styles is wasted effort. What is your view with respect to this issue? 11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of full-time inclusion in the regular education classroom? Should it be used with all students with exceptionalities?