Ch04 Work of Erikson

THE WORK OF ERIKSON Like Piaget, Erik Erikson did not start out as a psychologist. In fact, Erikson never graduated from high school He-spent his early adult years studying art and traveling around Europe. A meeting with Sigmund Freud in' Vienna led to an invitation from Freud to study psychoanalysis. In his influential Childhood and Society (1963), Erikson offered a basic framework for understanding the needs of young people in relation to the society in which they grow, learn, and later make their contributions. His later books Youth, child Crisis (1968) and identity and the Life Cycle (1980), expanded on his ideas. Erikson's psychosocial theory emphasized the emergence of the self, the search for identity, the individual’s relationships with others, and the role of culture throughout life. Like Piaget, Erikson saw development as a passage through a series of stages, each with its particular goals, concerns, accomplishments, and dangers. At each stage, Erikson suggests that the individual faces a developmental crisis- a conflict between a positive alternative and a potentially unhealthy alternative. The way in which the individual resolves each crisis will have a lasting effect on that person's self-image and view of society. The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative Erikson identifies trust versus mistrust as the basic conflict of intimacy. According to Erikson, the infant will develop a sense of trust if its needs for food and care are with comforting regularity and responsiveness from caregivers. In this first year, infants are in Piaget's sensor motor stage and are just beginning to learn that they are separate from the world around them ... This realization is part of what makes trust so important: Infants must trust the aspects of their world that arc beyond their control. Erikson’s second stage, autonomy versus shame and doubt, marks the beginning of self-control and self- confidence. Young children begin to assume important responsibilities for self-care such as feeding, toileting, and dressing. During this period parents must tread a fine line; they must be protective but not overprotective. If parents do not maintain a reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the child's efforts to master basic motor and cognitive skills, children may begin to feel shame; they may learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world on their own terms. Erikson believes that children who experience so much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in their own abilities throughout life.For Erikson, the next stage of "initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the sake of being active and on the move" (Erikson, 1963, p. 255). The challenge of this period is to maintain a zest for activity and at the same time understand that not every impulse can be acted on. Again, adults must tread a fine line, this time in providing supervision without interference. If children are not allowed to do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop; they may come to believe that what they want to do is always "wrong." Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority In the early school years, students are developing what Erikson calls a sense of industry. They are beginning to see the relationship between perseverance and the pleasure of a job completed. The crisis at this stage is industry versus inferiority. Par children in modern societies, the school and the neighborhood offer a new set of challenges that must be balanced with those at home. Interaction with peers becomes increasingly important as well. The child's ability to move between these worlds and to cope with academics, group activities, and friends will lead to a growing sense of competence. Difficulty with challenges can result in feelings of inferiority. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem How strongly do you agree or disagree with these statements? On the whole I am satisfied with myself. At times I think that I am no good at I feel that I have a number of good qualities. Certainly feel useless at times. I Wish I could have more respect for myself. I take a positive attitude toward myself. Interest in the self in psychology has grown steadily. In 1970, about in every 20 publications in psychology was related to the self. By 2000, the ratio was 1 in every 7. We focus on one aspect of self-self-concept, considered by many psychologists to be the foundation of both social and emotional development. The term self-concept is part of our everyday conversation. In psychology, self-concept generally refers to the composite of ideas, feelings, and attitudes people have about themselves". We could consider self-concept to be our attempt to explain ourselves to ourselves, to build a scheme (in Piagct's terms) that organizes our impressions, feelings, and attitudes about ourselves. But this model or scheme is not permanent, united, or unchanging. Our self-perceptions vary from situation to situation and from one phase of our lives to another. Self-concept and self-esteem are often used interchangeably, even though they have distinct meanings. Self-concept is a cognitive structure a belief about who you are, for example, a belief that you arc a good basketball player. Self-esteem is an affective reaction an judgment about who you are, for example, feeling good about your basketball skills. The Structure of Self-Concept The hierarchical structure of self-concept is strongest for early adolescents. Older adolescents and adults seem to have separate, pacific self concepts, but these are not necessarily integrated into an overall self-concept. Adult’s are not actively involved in all the academic domains (math, science, social studies) and can define themselves in terms of their interests and activities, so self-concept is more sitt1ation specific in adults. One important way self-concept affects learning in school is through course selection. Think back to high school. When you had a chance to choose courses, did you pick your worst Subjects those where you felt least capable? Probably not. How Self-Concept Develops. The self-concept evolves through constant self-evaluation in different situations. Children and adolescents arc continually asking themselves, in effect, "How am I doing?" They gauge the verbal and nonverbal reactions of significant people-parents and other family members in the early years and friends, schoolmates, and teachers later-to make judgments (Harter, 1998). Young children lend to make self-concept appraisals based on their own improvement over time. A recent study followed 60 students in New Zealand from the time they started school until the middle of their third year. In the first 2 months of school, differences on reading self-concept began to develop, based on the case or difficulty students had learning to read. Students who entered school with good knowledge about sounds and letters learned to read more easily and developed more positive reading self-concepts. Over time, differences in the reading performance of students with high and low reading self concepts grew even greater. Thus, the early experiences with the important school task of reading had strong impact on self-concept. As they move toward middle school, students compare their performance with their own standards-their performance in math to their performance in English and science, [or example, to form self-concepts in these areas. If math is their best subject, their math self-concept may be the most positive, even if their actual performance in math is poor. But social comparisons arc becoming more influential, too, at least in Western cultures. Students' self-concepts in math are shaped by how their performance compares to that of other students in their math classes (Marsh, 1994; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Students who are strong in math in an average school feel better about their math skills than students of equal ability in high-achieving schools do. School Life and Self-Esteem We turn now to self-esteem-the students' evaluations and feelings about themselves. For teachers, there are at least two questions to ask about self-esteem: (1) How does self esteem effect a student's behavior in school? (2) How does life in school affect a student's self-esteem? In answer to the first question, it appears that students with higher self-esteem are somewhat more likely to be successful in school (Marsh, 1990), although the strength of the relationship varies greatly, depending on the characteristics of the students and the research methods used. In addition, higher self-esteem is related to more favorable attitudes toward school, more 'positive behavior in the classroom, and greater popularity with other students. What about the second question of how school affects self-esteem: Is school important? A study that followed 322 6th-grade students for two years would say yes. Hoge, mit, and Hanson (1990) found-that students' satisfaction with school, their sense that classes were interesting and that teachers cared, and teacher feedback and evaluations influenced students' self-esteem. In physical education, teachers' opinions were especially powerful in shaping students' conceptions of their athletic abilities. Being placed in a low -ability group or being held back in school seems to have a negative impact on students' self-esteem, but learning in collaborative and cooperative settings seems to have a positive effect (Covington, [992; Deci & Ryan, 1985). interestingly, special programs such as "Student of the Month" or admission to advanced math classes had little effect on self-esteem. (Relate this to the" Big- Fish- Li1tle-Pond Effect.") Diversity and Self Esteem. A recent study followed 761 middle-classes, primarily European American students from Ist grade through high school. It is difficult to get longitudinal data, so this is a valuable study in 1st grade, girls and boys had comparable perceptions of their own abilities in language arts, but boys felt significantly more competent in math and sports. In language arts, buys' competence ratings fell more sharply than those of girls after Ist grade, but both levels during high schoo1. In sports, both boys and girls dropped, but boys remained significantly more confident in their competence in sports through out the entire 12 years. Other studies have also found that girls tend to see themselves as more able than boys in reading and c1osl' friendships; boy are more confident about their abilities in math and athletic. For most ethnic groups (except African Americans), males are more confident about their abilities in math and science. Differences between males and females generally are small but consistent across studies. Unfortunately, there are no long-term studies of other ethnic groups, so these patterns may be limited to European Americans. The Self and Others Taking the Perspective of Others would influence the perceptions of themselves. Moral Development Some of the earliest moral issues in classrooms involve dividing and sharing materials or distributive justice (Damon, 1994). For young children (ages 5 to 6), fair distribution is based on equality; thus, teachers often hear, "Keshawn got more than I did-that's not fair!" In the next few years, children come to recognize that some people should get more based on merit-they worked harder or performed better. Finally, around age 8, children are able to take need into account and reason based on benevolence, so they can understand that some students may get more time or resources from the teacher because those students have special needs. Another area that involves moral development is an understanding of rules. If you have spent time with young children, you know that there is a period when you can say, "Eating in the living room is not allowed!" and get away with it. For young children, rules simply exist. Piaget (1965) called this the state of moral realism. At this stage, the child of 5 or 6 believes that rules about conduct or rules about how to play a game are absolute and can't be changed. If a rule is broken, the child believes that the punishment should be determined by how much damage is done, not by the intention of the child or by other circumstances. So accidentally breaking three cups is worse than intentionally breaking one, and in the child's eyes, the punishment for the three cup offense should be greater. As children interact with others, develop perspective- taking emotional abilities, and see that different people have different rules, there is a gradual shift to a morality of cooperation. Children come to understand that people make rules and people can change them. When rules are broken, both the damage done and the intention of the offender are taken into account. These developmental changes and others are reflected in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, based in part on Piaget's ideas. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development A man's wife is dying. There is one drug that could save her but it is very expensive and the druggist who invented it will not sell it at a price low enough for the man to.? Buy it. Finally, the man becomes desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What should he do, and why? Lawrence Kohlberg (1963, 1975, and 1981) proposed a detailed sequence of stages of moral reasoning, or judgments about right and wrong. He divided moral development into three levels: (1) preconventional, where judgment is based solely on a person's own needs and perceptions; (2) conventional, where the expectations of society and law are taken into account; and (3) post conventional, where judgments are based on abstract, more personal principles that are not necessarily defined by society's laws. Kohlberg has evaluated the moral reasoning of both children and adults by presenting them with moral dilemmas, or hypothetical situations in which people must make difficult decisions and give their reasons. At level 1 (preconvention), the child's answer to the drug dilemma above might be, "he is wrong to steal because you might get caught." This answer reflects the child's basic egocentrism. The reasoning might be: "What would happen to me if I stole something? I might get caught and punished."At level 2 (the conventional level), the subject is able to look beyond the immediate personal consequences and consider the views, and especially the approval, of others. Laws, religious or civil, are very .important and are regarded as absolute and unalterable. One answer stressing adherence to rules is, "It is wrong to steal because it is against the law:' Another answer, placing high value on loyalty to family and loved ones but still respecting the law, is, "It's right to steal because the man means we trying to help his wife. But he will still have to pay the druggist when he can or accept the penalty for breaking the law." Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning Level I. Preconventional Moral Reasoning judgment is based on personal need and others' rules. Stage 1 Punishment-Obedience Orientation Rules are obeyed to avoid punishment. A good or bad action is determined by its physical consequences. Stage 2 Personal Reward Orientation Personal needs determine right and wrong. "You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." Level 2. Conventional Moral Reasoning Judgment is based on others' approval family expectations, traditional values the laws of society and loyalty to country. Stage 3 Good Boy Nice Girl Orientation Good means "nice: It is determined by what pleases, aids, and is approved by others. Stage 4 Law and Order Orientation Laws are absolute. Authority must be respected and the social under maintained. Level 3. Post conventional Moral Reasoning Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Good is determined by socially agreed upon standards of individual rights. This is a morality similar to that of the U.S. Constitution. Stage 6* Universal Ethical Principle Orientation Good and right are matters of individual conscience and involve abstract concepts of justice human dignity y and equality. At level 3 (the post conventional level), an answer might be, "11 is not wrong to steal because human life must be preserved. The worth of a human life is greater than the worth of property." This response considers the underlying values that might be involved in the decision. Abstract concepts are no longer rigid and, as the name of this level implies, principles can be separated from conventional values. A person reasoning on this Ievel understands that what is considered right by the majority may not be considered right by all individual in a particular situation. Rational, personal choice is stressed. Moral reasoning is related to both cognitive and emotional development. As we have seen, abstract thinking becomes increasingly important in the higher stages of moral development, as children love from decisions based on absolute rules to those based on abstract principles such as justice and mercy. The ability to see another’s perspective, to judge intentions, al1d lo imagine alternative bases for laws and rules also enters into judgments at the higher stages. Alternatives to Kohlberg's Theory The stage theory has been criticized. First, in reality, the stages do not seem to be separate, sequenced, and consistent. People often give reasons for moral choices that recent several different stages simultaneously. Or a person's choices in one instance may fit one stage and his or her decisions in a different situation may another stage. Second in everyday life, making moral choices involves more reasoning. Emotions, Compelling goals, relationships, and practical considerations all affect choices. Cultural Differences in Moral Reasoning Another criticism of Kohlberg’s stage is that moral reasoning are biased in favor of Western, male values that emphasize individualism. In cultures that are more family-centered or group-oriented, the highest moral value might involve pulling the opinions of the group before decisions based on individual conscience. There has been much disagreement over the "highest" moral stage. Kohlberg himself questioned the applicability or stage 6. Few people other than trained philosophers reason naturally or easily at this level. Kohlberg (1984) suggested that for all practical purposes, stages 5 and 6 might be combined. Aggression. There are several forms of aggression. The most common form is instrumental aggression, which is intended to gain an object or privilege, such as shoving to gel in line first or snatching a toy from another child. The intent is to get what you want, not to hurt the other child, but the hurt may happen anyway. A second kind is hostile aggression indicating intentional harm. Hostile aggression can be either the overt aggression of threats or physical attacks (as Ln, ''I'm gonna beat you up!") or relational aggression, which involves threatening or damaging social relationships (as in, ''I'm never going to speak to you again!"). Boys are more likely to use overt aggression and girls, like Alison in the opening case, are more likely to use relational aggression (Berk, 2002). Aggression should not be confused with assertiveness, which means affirming or maintaining a legitimate right. As Helen Bee (1981) explains, "A child who says, 'That my toy!' is showing assertiveness. 1f he bashes his playmate over the head to reclaim it, he has shown aggression" (p. 350).Modeling plays an important role in the expression of aggression (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963). Children who grow up in homes filled with harsh punishment and family violence are more likely to use aggression to solve their own problems (Emery, 1989; llolden & Rilchie, 1991). One very real source of aggressive models is found in almost every home in America-television. In the United States, 82% of TV programs have al least some violence. The rule for children's programs is especially high-an average or 32 violent acts per hour, with cart0011S being the worst. And in over 70% of the violent scenes, the violence goes unpunished (Mediascope, 1996; WalCH;, 1993). Most children spend more time watching television than they do in any other activity except sleep (Timmer, Eccles, & O'Brien, 1988). You can reduce the negative effects of TV violence by stressing three points with your students: Most people do not behave in the aggressive ways shown on television; the violent a -its on TV are not real, but are created by special effects and stunts; and there are better ways to resolve conflicts-these are the ways most real people use to solve their problems (Huessmann, Eron, Klein, Brice, & Fischer, 1983). Also, avoid using TV viewing as a reward or punishment because that makes television even more attractive to children (Slaby et al., 1995). But television is not the only some of violent models. Many popular films and video games are also filled with graphic depictions of violence, often performed by the "hero." Students growing up in the inner cities see gang violence. Newspapers, magazines, and the radio are filled with stories of murders, rapes, and robberies. In some preschools the children don't play "Mommy" and "Daddy; they pretend to sell "nickel bags" of heroin (really bags of ground-up chalk) to their playmates. Bullies. Aggressive children tend to believe that violence will be rewarded, and they use aggression to get what they want. They are more likely to believe that violent retaliation is acceptable: "It's OK to shove people when you're mad" (Egan, Monson, & Perry, 1998). Seeing violent acts go unpunished probably affirms and encourages these beliefs. in addition to being surrounded by violence and believing that violent "pay back" is appropriate when you are insulted or harmed, some children, particularly boys, have difficulty reading the intentions of others (Zelli, Dodge, Lochman, & Laird, 1999). As we saw earlier, they assume another child "did it on purpose" when their block tower is toppled; they are pushed on the bus, or some? their mistake is made. Retaliation follows and the cycle of aggression continues. For example, one study in Finland found that teacher-rated aggression at age 8 predicted school adjustment problems in early adolescence and Long-term unemployment in adulthood (Kokko & Pulkkinen, 2000). Sandra Graham (1996) has successfully experimented with approaches that help aggressive, 5th- and 6th-grade African American boys become better judges of others' intentions. Strategies include engaging in role play, participating in group discussions of personal experiences, interpreting social cues from photographs, playing pantomime games, making videos, and writing endings to unfinished stories. The boys in the 12-session training group showed clear improvement in reading the intentions of others and responding with less aggression. Relational Aggression. Insults, gossip, exclusion, taunt all these are forms of relational aggression. Sometimes called social aggression because the intent is to harm social connections. Both boys and girls take part in relational aggression, but after 2nd or 3rd grade, girls tend to engage in relational aggression more than boys. This may be because as girls become aware of gender stereotypes, they push their overt aggression underground into verbal, not physical, attacks. This type of aggression can be even more damaging than overt physical aggression-both to the victim and the aggressor. Victims, like Stephanie in the chapter opening, can be devastated. Relational aggressors can be viewed as even more problematic than physical aggressors by teachers and other students (Berger, 2003; Crick. Casas, & Mosher, 1997). As early as preschool, children need to learn how to negotiate social relations without resorting to aggression. Victims. Some students tend to be bullies; other children are victims. Studies from Europe and the United States indicate that about 10% of children are chronic victims-the constant targets for physical or verbal attacks. These victims tend to have low elf-esteem and they feel anxious, lonely, Insecure, and unhappy. They often are prone to crying and withdrawal; when attacked, generally they won't defend themselves. Recent research suggests that victims may blame themselves for their situation. They believe that they are rejected because they have character flaws that they cannot change or control-no wonder they are depressed and helpless! The situation is worse for young adolescent victims whose peers seem to have little sym palsy for them. Children who have been chronic victims through elementary and middle school are more When Aggression Leads to Violence: One third of all injury related deaths are linked with personal violence and young people are often the victims. Teachers and student need to know that warning sign of potential dangers. Cheating. Cheating seems to have more to do with the particular situation than with the general honesty or dishonesty of the individual. Students focusing all performance goals (making good grades, looking smart) as opposed to learning goals, and students with a low sense of academic self-efficacy (a belief that they probably can't do well in school) arc likely to cheat. Students also are particularly likely to cheat when they are behind or "cramming for tests" or when they believe that their teachers do not care about them. But the sad fact is that cheating by all groups has increased over the past 20 years. Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation Present yourself as non aggressive model. Do not use threat! Ensure that your classroom ha enough pace and appropriate materials for eve student. Remove materials that encourage personal aggression, such .as toy gun. Make sure students do not profit from aggressive behaviors. Teach directly about positive social behaviors. Incorporate lessons on social ethics/morality through reading. Discus the ideas of antisocial actions such as stealing, hunting. Provide opportunities for learning tolerance and cooperation. The implications for teachers are straightforward. To prevent cheating, try to avoid putting students in high-pressure situations. Make sure they are well prepared for tests, projects, and assignments so they call do reasonably well without cheating. Focus on teaming and not on grades. Make extra help available for those who need it. Be clear about your policies in regard to cheating, and enforce them consistently. Help students resist temptation by monitoring them carefully during testing. And separate the cheating behavior from your relationship with the student while you build authentic caring connections with your students.