Transcript
CHAPTER 9 – CHILD DEVELOPMENT
MODULE 9.1 KEY QUESTIONS AND METHODS OF STUDY
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss the major questions that underlie the study of human development
Explain how developmental psychologists study age-related changes
Key Terms and Concepts:
Developmental Psychology
Nature-Nurture Debate
Continuity Model
Discontinuity Model
Longitudinal Study
Cross-Sectional Study
Cohort Effects
Developmental Psychology—study of growth and change over the life span
The Nature Versus Nurture Question
How much of human development occurs due to nature (biology, genetic inheritance)?
How much of human development occurs due to nurture (environment, experiences)?
Early view: quite polarized
Current view: nature and nurture both crucial; one influences manifestation of the other
The Continuity Versus Discontinuity Question
In what pattern does development occur?
Continuity model—quantitative changes; steady pattern of small, fairly regular steps
Discontinuity model (main proponent was Jean Piaget)—qualitative changes, in stages; fairly stable within a stage, then rather dramatic shift in abilities
Current view: development involves both
The Universality Question
Does developmental pattern occur universally, or are there cultural differences?
Basic pattern seems to occur universally
Cultural differences in what stages experienced and when
The Stability Question—how consistent are personality features over the life span?
Methods of Study
Longitudinal studies
Studies of same very large group of people over a long, or very long, period of time
Allow study of developmental changes (e.g., personality, behavior) in the same people over time
Drawbacks: expensive, very time-consuming, lose participants over time, may not be representative
Cross-sectional studies
Involve study of different age groups of people, at same time
Objective is same as with longitudinal, just easier and less expensive
Drawbacks:
Cannot be certain of all comparisons, since age groups are different people as well
Cohort effects—function of being born at a particular time in history, among members of a particular generation
MODULE 9.2 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: A CASE OF NATURE AND NURTURE
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss the major stages of prenatal development
Describe some threats to prenatal development
Explain the types of tests used to detect chromosomal and genetic defects
Key Terms and Concepts:
Ovum
Ovulation
Fallopian Tube
Zygote
Germinal Stage
Fertilization
Uterus
Embryonic Stage
Embryo
Neural Tube
Amniotic Sac
Placenta
Fetal Stage
Fetus
Spina Bifida
Teratogen
Rebulla
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Amniocentesis
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Chorion
Down Syndrome
Ultrasound Imaging
Stages of Pregnancy (about 280 days total)
Germinal
Approximately the first two weeks after conception
Spans from moment of fertilization to complete implantation within the uterine lining
Embryonic (organism is an embryo)
Period from two weeks to eight weeks after conception
Basics of major organ systems develop
Baby is cushioned by amniotic fluid; nutrients, oxygen and wastes are exchanged via placenta
Fetal—from ninthweek of pregnancy until birth (organism is a fetus)
Threats to Prenatal Development
Adequate nutrition important, including sufficient folic acid (reduces risk of neural tube defects if taken during and preferably before first trimester of pregnancy)
Teratogens (cause harm to developing baby)
Infectious diseases
Rubella (German measles)—can cause heart disease, deafness, mental retardation
Sexually transmitted diseases (HIV, syphilis)
Smoking—increases risk for miscarriage, premature birth, low birth weight, infant mortality, SIDS, respiratory problems, hyperactivity
Alcohol and drugs—increase risk of birth defects, infant mortality, mental retardation
Prenatal Testing (testing for fetal abnormalities)
Amniocentesis—extract amniotic fluid (which contains fetal cells)
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)—chorion membrane tissue is analyzed
Ultrasound imaging—gives picture of fetus and amniotic sac
Parental blood tests—detects if parents are carriers of genetic disorders
MODULE 9.3 INFANT DEVELOPMENT
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the reflexes that newborn babies show
Outline infant physical development during the first year of life
Discuss the abilities infants possess with respect to sensory functioning, perception, and learning
Explain how the infant' motor abilities develop during the first year
Key Terms and Concepts:
Rooting Reflex
Eyeblink Reflex
Sucking Reflex
Moro Reflex
Palmar Grasp Reflex
Babinski Reflex
Maturation
Reflexes—unlearned, automatic responses to stimuli (usually have survival value; most disappear after a few months)
Rooting reflex—turn head in direction of stroke to cheek
Eyeblink reflex—protects from bright light, foreign objects
Sucking reflex—enables baby to get nourishment
Moro reflex (startle reflex)—response to being frightened (e.g., loud noise)
Palmar grasp reflex—curling fingers tightly around an object
Babinski reflex—toes fan out and curl when sole of foot stroked
Physical Development and Brain Size
Maturation—underlying blueprint directing much of emerging characteristics, patterns of growth
Role of environment—better nutrition has produced larger infants, children
Weight usually triples during first year
Brain quadruples in volume from birth to adulthood
Most of neurons in brain formed before birth
Increase in volume is due to
Creation of synapses (neural interconnections)
Formation of myelin sheath covering axons (allows for quicker, more efficient neural communication)
Sensory, Perceptual, and Learning Abilities in Infancy
Sensory ability
Vision
Least well-developed sense
Can recognize (and prefer) mother’s face; track moving objects
Depth perception
Studied using visual cliff apparatus
Depth perception apparent by age of six months
Hearing
Well developed at birth; know and prefer mother’s voice
Babies especially responsive to sounds corresponding to range of human verbal expression
By three months of age can distinguish among some speech sounds
Odors and tastes—newborns can differentiate among both, show preferences
Perceptual ability
Infants born with many perceptual abilities
Can differentiate among meaningful stimuli shortly after birth
Show a preference for faces among visual stimuli
Differentiate among facial expressions by four to six months of age
Learning ability
Can learn some simple (e.g., operantly conditioned) responses
Retain this learning for at least several weeks
Show prenatal learning in preference for mother’s voice
Motor Development
Many universal features in pattern of development
Goal-directed behaviors evidenced early on (e.g., bringing fist to mouth)
Early reflexive behavior slowly replaced by intentional, voluntary movements
Sitting alone, standing, and walking usually mastered by one year of age
MODULE 9.4 EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Compare and contrast the three basic types of infant temperament identified in the New York Longitudinal Study
Describe the three types of attachment styles identified by Ainsworth
Compare and contrast the three major styles of parenting in Baumrind' model
Explain the roles that peer relationships play in children' emotional and social development
Outline Erikson' childhood stages of psychosocial development
Key Terms and Concepts:
Temperament
Attachment
Bonding
Imprinting
Strange Situation
Internal Working Model
Temperament
More variation in social and emotional development (in comparison to development of physical abilities)
Types of temperament (based on New York Longitudinal Study [NYLS])
Easy children—40 percent of children in study; playful, adaptive
Difficult children—10 percent of children in study; negative, irritable
Slow-to-warm-up children—15 percent of children in study; “inhibited,” need more time to adjust
35 percent of children in study could not be classified
Temperament in childhood predicts adjustment as an adult
Both nature and nurture are influences
Children can learn to adapt successfully to environment, regardless of temperament
Attachment—enduring emotional bond, develops over time
Attachment behaviors in other species
Attachment found in many other species
Konrad Lorenz—studied ducks, geese, other fowl
Imprinting—following behavior; occurs in response to first moving object seen (shortly after birth)
Harry and Marguerite Harlow—rhesus monkeys prefer soft, cuddly surrogate “mother,” even when other surrogate has food
Attachment in human infants
John Bowlby (1908-1990)
Attachment biologically based, necessary for survival
Quality of attachment related to sensitivity, degree of care from parent
Mary Ainsworth—developed methodology to assess attachment (Strange Situation) and identified three basic types
Secure attachment (Type B)—65 to 70 percent of children show; rely on parent, warm reunion when mother returns
Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A)—about 20 percent of children show; child has little interest, little distress with regard to parent
Insecure-resistant attachment (Type C)—about 10 percent of children show; emotionally erratic, ambivalent or may rebuff mother
Fourth type of attachment identified later—disorganized/disoriented (Type D)—child seems confused, unable to make effective use of available support, unable to approach parent directly even when in need
Conclusion: responding promptly, appropriately to infant’s signals leads to secure attachment
Criticisms of Strange Situation research method
Attachment measured in too limited a period
Method may not take cultural differences into account
Attachment and later development
Early attachment styles affect later emotional relationships
Poor adult attachment patterns correlated with poorer physical and emotional health
Early attachment experiences result in internal working models—expectations for what emotional relationships are like
More securely attached infant more likely to later exhibit: better adjustment, higher self-esteem, greater cooperativeness, greater independence, fewer behavioral problems, better peer relationships, better overall emotional health
Child-Rearing Influences
Characteristics of good parenting
Many factors influence child’s emotional, intellectual, and social development
Factors include genetics, peer groups, quality of parenting
Quality parenting: spending much time with children; sensitive to their needs and cues; modeling and reinforcing appropriate behaviors; setting and explaining clear rules, establishing limits; consistency in standards and interaction; providing warm, loving environment
Father’s influence
Involved fathers have children who perform better academically
Two-parent (mother, father) families have children with greater academic and social success
Fathers (in western societies) engage in more active physical play with children, less basic care giving, relative to mothers
Cultural differences in parenting
African American
Strong kinship bonds; parenting is shared among family members
Grandmother may assume most important role
Hispanic
Father is traditional provider, protector
Mother usually assumes full child-care responsibility
Fairly strict discipline standards; emphasis on demeanor, respect towards adults
Currently changing as cultural characteristics change
Asian cultures
Emphasize respect for parental authority, particularly that of father
Usually warm relationship with mother
All cultures move child from dependency to independence
Parenting styles (Baumrind, 1971, 1991)
Three basic types of parenting styles identified
Authoritative—reasonable, consistent limits; loving; listen; explain
Authoritarian—rigid, demand unquestioning obedience; disregard for child’s feelings or point of view
Permissive—little involvement on part of parent as far as establishing guidelines, rules; little follow-through
Critique
Need to consider environment when evaluating effectiveness of parenting style (e.g., high-risk may necessitate different parenting tactics in comparison to low-risk environment)
Cultural influences may vary with regard to what are considered desirable parenting qualities
Some influence from child’s personality
Peer Relationships
Peer relationships affect much of child’s development
Provide opportunities to develop social competencies, self-esteem, emotional understanding
Peer-rejected children are at greater risk (lower academic performance, poorer social and psychological adjustment)
Some peer influence undesirable (e.g., learning deviant behaviors)
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Emphasized importance of social relationships (1963)
Personalities shaped by psychosocial challenges
Stages that cover childhood development period:
Trust vs. mistrust
First year of life—creates view of people, world in general
Trust develops when infant treated with warmth, responsiveness
Mistrust develops when child not attended to
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
One through three years of age
Child’s greater mobility, inquisitiveness, toilet training are major features
Shame and doubt if child criticized, given tasks beyond his abilities
Initiative vs. guilt
Includes child’s ages of four and five years
Children come up with own ideas, not just adopting those of others
When praised, gain sense of confidence, competence
When criticized, feel inept, incapable, awkward
Industry vs. inferiority
Includes elementary school ages (approximately six to twelve years)
Not only initiate own tasks, interests, but much more likely to follow them through
Very many skills and areas of knowledge gained (academic, social, physical/motor)
Much comparison by children among themselves, in addition to feedback from parents, teachers
Experiences later in life can alter impact of earlier stages
Exploring Psychology: Does Day Care Affect Attachment?
More preschoolers now in day-care centers than at home, or in relative’s home
Apparently no differences in attachment patterns for children experiencing full-time day-care setting
High-quality care can have positive effects on cognitive and social development
Possibly long hours of day care associated with more aggressiveness
Effects on child development related to quality of care, whether day-care setting or at home
Parents should ask about licensure; facilities; policies; staff attitudes, morale, and qualifications; types of toys/activities available to children
MODULE 9.5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Compare and contrast assimilation and accommodation
Describe Piaget' stages of cognitive development
Discuss the basic theme in Vygotsky' theory of cognitive development
Key Terms and Concepts:
Schema
Adaptation
Assimilation
Accommodation
Object Permanence
Symbolic Representations
Egocentrism
Animistic Thinking
Irreversibility
Centration
Conservation
Formal Operations
Zone of Proximal Development
Scaffolding
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Basics of Piaget’s theory
Best way to learn about children is to observe them carefully
Schema—organizational system used by individuals to interact with the world
Adaptation—changing in order to better meet challenges in the world
Assimilation—adding a new item to an existing schema
Accommodation—modifying an existing schema (or creating a new one) to account for phenomena that do not fit in existing schemas
Stage approach to cognitive development
Assimilation and accommodation processes are lifelong
Cognitive development progresses through stages—universal pattern for all children; each stage qualitatively different from others
Sensorimotor stage
Birth to two years of age
Gain object permanence (traditional test) by about eight months of age
Learn about world through motor actions; sensory system detects result
Preoperational stage
Two to seven years of age
Still do not have logical cognitive ability
Gain ability for symbolic representations (one is language)
Piaget’s view—child egocentric until end of stage; uses animistic thinking
Do not yet understand principles of conservation (of number, area, volume)
Concrete operational stage
Seven to eleven years of age
Gain understanding of conservation—when nothing added or subtracted, quantity does not change though form or appearance might
Can perform simple logical operations provided they deal with real-world examples (e.g., do not involve abstract or hypothetical thinking)
Formal operational stage
Last stage—begins at about eleven or twelve years of age
Full cognitive maturity—but not everyone reaches this level
Can manage deductive, abstract, and hypothetical thinking
Critique of Piaget’s theory
Challenges to the stage model of development
Another view is that development is quantitative and continuous
Underestimation of children’s abilities
More recent research—children more capable, earlier than Piaget realized
Tasks may be too difficult to show what children know
Lack of attention to cultural influences on cognitive development
Cross-cultural studies confirm order of stages of development, not timing
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
A Russian psychologist (1896?1934); social interactions are vehicle for learning
Zone of proximal development—what child can learn, with guidance, help
Scaffolding—scale instruction to level of child; adjust as child progresses
MODULE 9.6 APPLICATION: TV AND KIDS
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Explain how TV viewing influences children' development
Possible Physical and Psychological Drawbacks to Children’s Viewing Television
Television takes away from other important activities—keep in mind that children are not always engaged in “constructive” activities
It is because of television that children do poorly in school—there is a slight but consistent negative correlation between television viewing and performance in school (e.g., as hours of television viewing increase among children, academic achievement decreases)
Watching television fosters violence and aggressive behavior in children
Even children’s programs have much violent content
Heroes often win with violence—sends the message that violence is acceptable
Violence on television increases aggressive behavior; aggressive individuals select more violent programming
Research by Albert Bandura—children exhibit more aggressive behavior when they see it modeled
Habituation effects—viewers become sensitized to real-life violence
TV viewing is related to obesity in children
Parent’s Role in Responsible Television Viewing for Children
Screen programs children will watch
Join child in television viewing, explain
Avoid using television as a baby-sitter
Limit hours of TV viewing (recommended is one to two hours a day at most)
Encourage children to limit viewing, choose programs wisely
News programs may be very inappropriate for young children
Avoid eating in front of the television (for anyone)
Encourage other interests on the part of the child