Ch12 Personality

CHAPTER 12 – PERSONALITY MODULE 12.1 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to: Define personality Describe the three levels of consciousness from Freud' theory Explain the structures of personality in Freud' theory Describe psychological defense mechanisms Explain the five stages of psychosexual development in Freud' theory Discuss some of the major contributions of other psychodynamic theorists Key Terms and Concepts: Personality Psychoanalytic Theory Conscious Preconscious Unconscious Id Ego Superego Pleasure Principle Reality Principle Defense Mechanisms Repression Denial Reaction Formation Rationalization Projection Sublimation Regression Displacement Erogenous Zone Fixations Oral Stage Anal Stage Anal-Retentive Personality Anal-Expulsive Personality Phallic Stage Oedipus Complex Electra Complex Castration Anxiety Penis Envy Latency Stage Genital Stage Personal Unconscious Collective Unconscious Archetypes Individual Psychology Creative Self Inferiority Complex Drive for Superiority Basic Anxiety Basic Hostility Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Basics of psychoanalytic theory Humans have sexual (and aggressive) instincts—for survival These inborn forces must be balanced with needs of society Psychoanalytic theory created to explain how this balance is achieved Levels of consciousness Mind is like an iceberg; most of mass lies out of range of visible detection Contains three parts Conscious—present awareness (tip of iceberg we can see) Preconscious—stores past experiences and learning (easy to access) Unconscious—primitive impulses, unacceptable desires, disturbing past experiences (the iceberg mass under the water that we cannot see); not easy to access The structure of personality—consists of three (hypothetical) mental entities Id (“it”) Operates only in unconscious Only psychic structure present at birth Contains animal drives, instinctive impulses Basic energy that fuels our behavior Functions according to pleasure principle—instant gratification, no regard for other considerations Ego Formed during first year of life Realizes not all instinctual desires will be immediately satisfied Learns how to cope with frustration, delay of gratification Operates according to reality principle—satisfy demands in way that is acceptable to society Superego Internal moral guardian, conscience Develops about ages three through five years Internalizes norms, moral teachings to which we are exposed Most of superego also unconscious Judges, evaluates our actions and may impose shame Ego negotiates (balances) between superego and id Freud perceived these conflicts (among personality facets) as ongoing Dynamic (constant challenges, interplay between the three) Psyche—within the mind (so, “psychodynamic”) Always out of conscious awareness Defense mechanisms Prevent anxiety that would occur if unconscious contents were in awareness Repression—motivated forgetting (keeping troubling thoughts out of conscious awareness) Other defense mechanisms: regression, displacement, denial, reaction formation, rationalization, projection, sublimation, regression, and displacement Defense mechanisms can lead to, or be an attempt to hide, abnormal behavior Stages of personality development Psychosexual stages—each characterized by focus on different body parts for sexual pleasure (erogenous zones) All bodily processes sexual—because necessary for survival Conflicts at each stage can lead to fixations (being “stuck” in a stage) Freud’s five psychosexual stages: Oral stage—0 to 18 months; mouth, sucking Anal stage—18 months to 3 years; fixation may make one either excessively fastidious or messy Phallic stage—3 to 6 years; Oedipal, Electra complexes; much influence on personality Latency stage—6 to 12 years; sexual impulses dormant (says Freud!) Genital stage—puberty; incestuous desires forsaken Other Psychodynamic Approaches Common characteristic is emphasis on unconscious conflict Less sexual, aggressive emphasis, more focus on social relationships, tasks of the ego Leading neo-Freudians: Carl Jung—analytical psychology Broke close ties with Freud More emphasis on current experiences (vs. early childhood) Greater emphasis on conscious (vs. unconscious) processes Have both a personal and a collective unconscious (collective unconscious contains accumulated knowledge of the species—explains cross-cultural similarities) Alfred Adler—individual psychology Also broke close ties with Freud Emphasis on individual’s unique potential Important role for consciousness—creative self Proposed concept of inferiority complex, since children start out small, with limited abilities; desire to overcome (drive for superiority) Karen Horney—early feminine perspective German physician and early psychoanalyst Agreed that unconscious conflicts shape personality Less emphasis on sex, aggression; more on social, cultural forces Emphasized importance of parent-child relationships Can move towards, away from, or against others Opposed Freud’s view of penis envy; females’ inferiority more due to lower social status (and women admirable because of ability to reproduce) Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective Most detailed and comprehensive theory on personality to date Many terms have become part of everyday vocabulary Possible greatest contribution—suggesting unconscious forces motivate behavior Criticisms Too much emphasis on sexual and aggressive drives Lack of evidence to support many components (e.g., Oedipal complex, castration anxiety, penis envy) Theory based largely on only a few case studies Much of phenomena cannot be tested (or substantiated) scientifically Is some support for repression, other defense mechanisms (functioning outside of conscious awareness) MODULE 12.2 THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to: Describe the three types of traits in Allport' model Explain Cattell' view on the organization of traits Discuss the three traits represented in Eysenck' model of personality Describe the "Big Five" model of personality Explain the role of genes in personality Key Terms and Concepts: Traits Cardinal Traits Central Traits Secondary Traits Surface Traits Source Traits Introversion-Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism Five-Factor Model (FFM) The Approach of Trait Theorists Look at personality to explain behavior Relatively stable, enduring characteristics are traits Traits help explain behavior across situations Traits suggest why people differ with regard to personality Considerations: How do we measure traits? Are they learned, or inborn? Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of Traits Traits are physical entities buried in the brain Traits occur in a hierarchy Cardinal traits—highest level; are pervasive throughout personality Central traits—basic building blocks; influence behavior in most situations Secondary traits—more superficial (e.g., preferences in clothing, music) Raymond Cattell: Mapping the Personality Can we distill the traits that truly describe personality? Two basic levels of traits Surface traits We can infer from observations of behavior Examples are friendliness, helpfulness, emotionality Surface traits often occur together These linkages suggest more general, underlying traits Source traits Derived from factor analysis Developed 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) Hans Eysenck: A Simpler Trait Model Constructed a simpler model with three major traits Eysenck’s traits: Introversion-extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) measures these traits Variations in personality are due to biological (neurological) differences The Five-Factor Model of Personality (“Big Five”) The most widely adopted trait model of personality Five broad personality factors consistently found in personality research Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness A consolidation and integration of factors previously identified Good support from cross-cultural studies Consistency suggests underlying genetic component Still not the final word regarding basic factors in personality Can something so rich and varied as personality ever really be captured by broad categories? The Genetic Basis of Traits Heredity has an important role in shaping personality Genes are linked to neuroticism, shyness, aggressiveness Trait of novelty-seeking linked to dopamine gene Greatest focus is how environment, biology interact (mutually influential) Evaluating the Trait Perspective Trait perspective has intuitive appeal Trait terms are commonly used Trait theories are basis of many personality tests Criticisms: Traits label but do not explain behavior Behavior not at all necessarily stable over time or across situations Do we need to consider situational factors? Personality probably an interaction between traits, environment MODULE 12.3 THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to: Explain expectancies and subjective values Describe reciprocal determinism Describe situation and personal variables Key Terms and Concepts: Social-Cognitive Theory Expectancies Subjective Value Locus of Control Reciprocal Determinism Outcome Expectations Efficacy Expectations Situation Variables Person Variables Personality as Resulting from Learned Behaviors Another view besides Freud’s and that of trait theorists Personality is learned, like all of behavior Total experience is history of reinforcements, punishments Exhibited personality characteristics are those strengthened by family, culture Contemporary Version: Social-Cognitive Theory Broader view regarding learned behavior Consider cognitive, social aspects of behavior Includes expectancies, values, and role of imitation Humans think about and act on world, not just react to it Julian Rotter: The Locus of Control To understand personality, know history of reinforcements—and some cognitive aspects Expectancies—beliefs regarding end result of behavior Subjective value—personal importance placed on various outcomes Locus of control—belief regarding source of forces that ultimately determine outcomes Internal locus of control Individual believes outcomes are primarily in his or her own hands “Internals” more likely to succeed in school, cope with pain, recover more quickly from minor surgery External locus of control—individual believes outcomes are due to forces out of one’s control that one cannot influence Albert Bandura: Reciprocal Determinism and the Role of Expectancies Reciprocal determinism—cognitions, behaviors, and environmental factors influence each other Importance of observational learning Two types of expectancies Outcome expectations—what we predict about a given behavior Efficacy expectations—beliefs in one’s ability to perform a behavior Self-efficacy—belief in personal effectiveness People high in self-efficacy more likely to choose challenging tasks and to succeed at them Walter Mischel: Situation versus Person Variables Theoretical model has overlap with Rotter, Bandura Behavior influenced both by situation and internal personal factors Person variables Expectancies, subjective values (same as Rotter’s model) Competencies—knowledge and skills we possess Encoding strategies—personal way of interpreting an event Self-regulatory systems and plans—self-directed strategy for obtaining goals Environment and personal factors interact to produce behavior Interactions of emotions with personal factors also important Emotional state influences how we encode experiences, form expectations Way that events are interpreted and processed (how we encode experiences) is related to subsequent emotional state Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Model Continues long history of impact from learning theorists Ongoing reminder of importance of environmental factors Learning approach enhanced by adding cognitive factors Behavioral and social-cognitive perspectives in therapeutic treatments Important to see humans as inquisitive, active, initiating agents (not just passive respondents) Criticisms from other personality perspectives (Freudian, trait, humanistic) MODULE 12.4 THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to: Describe self-theory Explain the role of unconditional positive regard in the development of self-esteem Key Terms and Concepts: Self-Theory Unconditional Positive Regard Conditional Positive Regard Self-Ideals Collectivistic Culture Individualistic Culture I. Conscious Choice and Personal Freedom Paramount to Human Experience II. Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self A. Self-theory—self is executive part of personality, primary function to develop self-esteem B. Unconditional positive regard—an individual has value, regardless of behavior C. Conditional positive regard—an individual has value only when he/she behaves “properly” D. Self-ideals—our idealized sense of who or what we should be III. Abraham Maslow: Scaling the Heights of Self-Actualization A. Higher-order needs—pursuit of esteem, respect, and self-actualization B. Drive toward self-actualization shapes our personalities IV. Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective A. Therapeutic applications still influential B. Criticisms have included that the focus on conscious experience is a weakness in terms of scientific investigation, also emphasis on self may lead to self-indulgence V. See Exploring Psychology—Culture and Self-Identity A. Collectivistic versus individualistic cultures MODULE 12.5 PERSONALITY TESTS After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to: Describe self-report personality inventories Describe projective tests of personality Key Terms and Concepts: Phrenology Personality Tests Self-Report Personality Inventories Objective Tests Standard Scores Projective Tests History of Attempts to Measure Personality Character of Darwin and others judged on basis of physical features Phrenology—judging mental and personal attributes based on bumps on the head Self-Report Personality Inventories Are objective tests; “yes/no” or “agree/disagree” format Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) MMPI-2 has 567 true-false questions; yields scores on ten clinical scales Originally constructed to help diagnose psychological disorders Evaluation of self-report personality tests Reliability and validity supported by research Important to not base entire diagnosis on one test Projective Tests—use unstructured, ambiguous, open-ended stimuli Rorschach test As a child, Rorschach found inkblots interpreted differently Scoring is complex; results must be interpreted by test administrator Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)—stories about TAT’s ambiguous scenes may reveal aspects of personality, psychological issues Evaluation of projective tests—drawbacks include subjective nature of scoring, possible “pull” in features of ambiguous stimuli MODULE 12.6 APPLICATION: BUILDING SELF-ESTEEM After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to: Describe some ways of building self-esteem VI. Acquire Competencies: Become Good at Something II. Set Realistic, Achievable Goals III. Enhance Your Self-Efficacy Expectations IV. Create a Sense of Meaningfulness in Your Life V. Challenge Your Perfectionistic Expectations VI. Challenge Your Need For Constant Approval Ways We Can Strengthen Our Self-Esteem Acquire competencies—self-esteem is related to ability for accomplishments Set reasonable goals Have confidence in your abilities and likelihood of success Create a sense of meaningfulness—think of what is really important to you Be willing to accept level less than perfectionist Moderate need for approval from others