Transcript
CHAPTER 13 – PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
MODULE 13.1 WHAT IS ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR?
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the criteria used to determine whether behavior is abnormal
Discuss the major models of abnormal behavior
Define psychological disorder
Key Terms and Concepts:
Hallucinations
Delusions
Culture-Bound Syndromes
Dhat Syndrome
Medical Model
Biopsychosocial Model
Diathesis-Stress Model
Diathesis
Psychological Disorders
Charting the Boundaries Between Normal and Abnormal Behavior
Criteria for abnormal behavior—no behaviors exclusive to psychological disorder
Unusualness—experienced by only a few
Social deviance—not considered socially acceptable
Emotional distress—when prolonged, excessive, inappropriate
Maladaptive behavior—causes distress, self-defeating, self-destructive
Dangerousness—must consider within social context
Faulty perceptions or interpretations of reality—hallucinations, delusions, distortions of reality
Professionals use several criteria to make determination
Cultural bases of abnormal behavior
Always must consider social, cultural context when making evaluation
Disorders may take different forms in different cultures
Culture-bound syndromes—limited to occurring within just one culture
Behaviors may also be considered disordered or not, depending on era in history (e.g., evaluation of homosexuality)
Applying the criteria—apply several criteria in order to accurately evaluate
Models of Abnormal Behavior
Early beliefs
Ancient times through Middle Ages—disturbed people thought possessed by demons or controlled by supernatural forces
Treatment was exorcism, or more severe
The medical model
Eighteenthand nineteenthcenturies—medical advances
Shift to belief that mental disturbance is an illness
Psychological models
Psychodynamic (Freud)—disturbance due to unconscious conflict, stemming from childhood
Behavioral—disturbed, maladaptive behaviors learned the same way normal behaviors learned
Humanistic
Disturbance due to encountering roadblocks on path to self-actualization
Individuals have lost touch with inner self, over-concern with standards of others, distorted self-image
Cognitive
Disturbances due to irrational, distorted thinking
Interpreting negatively, exaggerating negative consequences
The sociocultural model
Must evaluate in terms of social, cultural context
Problem may lie with social ills, failures of society
Labeling sufferers results in social prejudices; compounds problem
The biopsychosocial model
Many useful models to explain abnormal behavior
Disturbance is the result of combination, interaction of factors (including psychological, biological, sociocultural)
Diathesis-stress model
Diathesis is a predisposition, vulnerability (genetic or psychological)
High stress triggers disorder, low stress does not
What Are Psychological Disorders?
Basic characteristics of psychological disorders
Also known as mental disorders, mental illnesses
Disturbances of behavior, mood, thoughts, or perceptions, which impair functioning
How many are affected?
Fifty percent of Americans have a diagnosable disorder at some point
How are psychological disorders classified?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)
Descriptions, diagnostic criteria for every recognized psychological disorder
Multiaxial system—practitioner examines patient on many dimensions
Widely used; some concern that reliability, validity not fully established; may rely too much on medical model
MODULE 13.2 ANXIETY DISORDERS
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the various types of anxiety disorders
Explain the causal factors implicated in anxiety disorders
Key Terms and Concepts:
Anxiety Disorders
Phobia
Social Phobia
Specific Phobia
Acrophobia
Claustrophobia
Agoraphobia
Panic Disorder
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Anxiety Sensitivity
Types of Anxiety Disorders
Basic characteristics of anxiety disorders
Most commonly experienced psychological disorders
Formerly classified as neuroses
Characterized by excessive, inappropriate agitation; impedes one’s ability to function
Phobias
Affect seven to eleven percent of population
Irrational or excessive fear of object or situation
Types of phobic disorders
Social phobia—fear of being with others, speaking in public
Specific phobia—such as acrophobia (fear of heights), claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces)
Agoraphobia—fear of open spaces, going out in public
Individuals usually aware of problem; still cannot face source of fear
Panic disorder
Sudden episodes of sheer terror (panic attacks)
Many physiological symptoms; feeling as if one is dying or having a heart attack
Experience can be triggered by particular situations
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Pervasive, persistent fear, not related to specific object or location
Unrest, constant worry, feelings of dread and foreboding
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Behaviors or thoughts repeated over and over again
Obsessions are persistent thoughts; compulsions are rituals or repetitive behaviors
Causes of Anxiety Disorders
Biological factors
Anxiety disorders run in families—suggests a genetic link
Brain functioning may result in sense of alarm in some people
Overactivity in certain parts of the brain
Psychological factors
Classical conditioning—neutral stimulus paired with one that is frightening
Operant conditioning—negative reinforcement through relief of avoiding situation, engaging in compulsive behaviors
Cognitive models—possible misinterpretation of bodily cues; excessive, unrealistic concerns about others’ social judgments
MODULE 13.3 DISSOCIATIVE AND SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
After you have mastered the information in the unit, you will be able to:
Describe the dissociative and somatoform disorders
Explain the causal factors implicated in dissociative and somatoform disorders
Key Terms and Concepts:
Dissociative Disorders
Somatoform Disorders
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Conversion Disorder
Hypochondriasis
Secondary Gain
Dissociative Disorders—interfere with cohesive sense of self, unity of personality
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
Also known as multiple personality or split personality
Two or more distinct personalities exist within same individual
Dissociative amnesia
Loss of memory about self or life experiences (no physical cause)
Usually a traumatic or stressful event involved
Causes of Dissociative Disorders
May be an attempt to distance self from psychological pain, conflict
DID—possible background of severe, repetitive physical abuse
DID diagnosis still in question
Somatoform Disorders—physical problem, no underlying physical cause
Conversion disorder
Called “hysteria” during time of Sigmund Freud
Loss of physical function, loss of feeling in a limb
Hypochondriasis—preoccupation with belief that one has a terrible illness
Causes of Somatoform Disorders
Freud’s explanation—manifestation of unconscious conflict
Secondary gain—“problem” may help individual avoid anxiety-producing situations
People may be reinforced for playing the “sick role”
MODULE 13.4 MOOD DISORDERS
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the various types of mood disorders
Explain the causal factors implicated in mood disorders
Discuss the reasons for suicide and who is most at risk for committing suicide
Key Terms and Concepts:
Mood Disorders
Major Depression
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Dysthymic Disorder
Bipolar Disorder
Manic Episodes
Cyclothymic Disorder
Learned Helplessness Model
Attributional Style
Depressive Attributional Style
Disinhibition Effect
Basic Characteristics of Mood Disorders
Severe, persistent disturbances of mood
Impair ability to function, will to live
Types of Mood Disorders
Depressive disorders
Major depression
Extreme feelings of worthlessness, sadness, despondency
Experienced twice as often by women as men
Women may experience more stress, handle stress differently
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Periods of depression during fall and winter
Treated successfully by exposure to bright light
Dysthymic disorder
More mild but chronic form of depression—may last for years
More common in women
Bipolar disorders—alternating, fairly extreme moods of elation, depression
Manic episodes—euphoria, boundless energy, possibly reckless
Cyclothymic disorder
Milder mood swings than bipolar individual
About as many men as women affected
Causes of Mood Disorders
Psychological factors
Psychodynamic explanation—anger against self
Behavior model—too little reinforcement, especially social reinforcement
Cognitive approach
Aaron Beck (developed cognitive therapy)
How people interpret events is related to depression
Negative mind set, cognitive distortions are the problem
Learned helplessness model (Martin Seligman)
Stop making effort when people feel they have lost control over events
Attributional style—how we explain outcomes
Depressive attributional style—internal, global, stable interpretation for outcomes involving disappointments, experiences of failure
Biological factors
Chemical imbalances in the brain (involving neurotransmitters)
Antidepressants (e.g., Prozac) increase levels of norepinephrine and serotonin
Depression not just a lack of certain neurotransmitters
Genetic link likely, especially with regard to bipolar disorder
Exploring Psychology: The Personal Tragedy of Suicide
Rate of occurrence
500,000 Americans each year make a serious attempt
A leading cause of death among older teens, young adults
Who is most at risk?
Age—greatest among older adults
Gender
More women attempt suicide
More males complete the act—use more lethal, violent methods
Race/ethnicity—higher rate among white European Americans, Native Americans
Factors in suicide
Closely related to mood disorders, especially depression, bipolar disorder
Suicide, like depression, may be linked to biochemical factors
Disinhibition effect
Possible result of low levels of serotonin
Removes natural tendency to curb impulsive activity (including attempt to commit suicide)
Alcohol dependence—again may lead to impulsivity
Lack of coping responses among those who attempt, commit suicide
Exit events—losing people who are sources of emotional support
Copycat suicides among adolescents
MODULE 13.5 SCHIZOPHRENIA
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Define schizophrenia
Describe the three specific types of schizophrenia
Explain the causal factors implicated in schizophrenia
Discuss the diathesis-stress explanation for schizophrenia
Key Terms and Concepts:
Schizophrenia
Psychotic Disorder
Thought Disorder
Positive Symptoms
Disorganized Type
Catatonic Type
Waxy Flexibility
Paranoid Type
Background Factors in Schizophrenia
Disorder most closely related to typical concept of madness
Involves bizarre, irrational behavior; roughly one percent of population is affected
Slightly more common, more severe, and with earlier onset in men
Tends to occur at uniform rates worldwide
Onset corresponds to transition from adolescence to adulthood
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
A psychotic disorder—inability to distinguish reality from fantasy
Experience things that in actuality do not exist
Hallucinations—perceptions not based on actual stimuli (e.g., hearing voices)
Delusions—adhering to beliefs that are clearly, completely false
Exhibit bizarre behavior, incoherent speech, illogical thinking (positive symptoms)
Thought disorder—ideas not really connected, organized, or meaningful
Includes extreme withdrawal, isolation, apathy, blunted emotions (negative symptoms)
Not all symptoms necessary for diagnosis of schizophrenia
Types of Schizophrenia
Disorganized
Confused behavior, hallucinations, disorganized delusions
May neglect personal hygiene, fail to control bodily functions
Inappropriate emotions, difficulty in relating to others
Catatonic
Bizarre movements, postures, grimaces
May adopt a motionless stupor, unresponsive for hours
Waxy flexibility—body can be molded without difficulty by others
A rare form of schizophrenia
Paranoid
Most common form of schizophrenia
Delusions of grandeur, persecution, or jealousy
May be accompanied by auditory hallucinations
Causes of Schizophrenia
Genetic factors
Heredity plays an important role
Higher rate of incidence among monozygotic than dizygotic twins
Higher incidence in adopted children whose biological parents afflicted
Expected that multiple genes are responsible for disorder
Biochemical imbalances
Dopamine pathways and dopamine receptors are implicated
Helpful antipsychotic drugs (e.g., Thorazine) reduce dopamine activity
Brain abnormalities
MRIs, CTs reveal abnormal brain development
Most affected areas are prefrontal cortex, limbic system
Prefrontal cortex helps organize thoughts, carry out plans
Limbic system involved in memories, emotional experiences
Psychosocial influences
Life stresses a factor, such as difficult family environment
Diathesis-stress model
Diathesis involves a genetic predisposition; creates vulnerability
Sufficient stressful experiences trigger onset of disorder
MODULE 13.6 PERSONALITY DISORDERS
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the personality disorders
Outline the characteristics associated with antisocial personality disorder
Discuss the causal factors implicated in antisocial personality disorder
Key Terms and Concepts:
Personality Disorders
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Borderline Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Background Characteristics of Personality Disorders
Excessively rigid patterns of behavior
Maladaptive because limits adjustment to environment, needs of others
Types of Personality Disorders
Narcissistic personality disorder—inflated sense of self
Paranoid personality disorder—extreme suspiciousness, distrust of others
Schizoid personality disorder
Little or no interest in social relationships
Limited range of emotional expression
Appear distant and aloof
Borderline personality disorder
Stormy relationships with others
Unstable self-image, dramatic mood swings
Ten personality disorders identified by DSM
Antisocial personality disorder (APD)—the most widely studied
Symptoms of Antisocial Personality Disorder
People with this disorder have also been labeled psychopaths, or sociopaths
Flagrant disregard for rules of society
Complete lack of regard for well-being of others
Not a psychotic disorder; antisocial personality is in touch with reality
Impulsive, irresponsible, take advantage of others
Lack remorse for misdeeds, mistreatment of others
Not concerned or threatened by punishment or possibility of punishment
May be unusually intelligent, exhibit superficial charm
Most often found in males
Causes of Antisocial Personality Disorder
Possible brain abnormalities in males
Lower levels of activity in frontal lobes of cerebral cortex
Possible structural damage to prefrontal cortex
Craving for stimulation may have genetic link
Environmental factors
Characteristics of homes, families where APD individuals raised
Lack of parental warmth
Parental neglect, rejection
Use of harsh punishment
Emotional, physical abuse
History of abuse may lead to lack of empathy, lack of genuine emotional ties
Failure to develop concern for others, moral compass, conscience
APD individuals treat others with callous disregard
MODULE 13.7 APPLICATION: SUICIDE PREVENTION
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
Outline the steps you can take to help someone who is threatening suicide
Background Factors in the Occurrence of Suicide
Difficult to detect, even by professionals
A challenging situation, but there are steps one can take to help prevent
Facing the Threat—General Guidelines
Recognize that threatened suicide is serious
Also consider seriously indicators that are implied but not overt
Show warmth, compassion, understanding
Suggest alternatives
Evaluate immediacy of the event
Encourage the individual to agree regarding getting help
Take the individual to get help
CHAPTER 13 – PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
MODULE 13.1 - WHAT IS ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR?
Hallucinations
Delusions
Culture-Bound Syndromes
Medical Model
Biopsychosocial Model
Diathesis-Stress Model
Diathesis
Psychological Disorders
MODULE 13.2 - ANXIETY DISORDERS
Anxiety Disorders
Phobias
Social Phobia
Specific Phobia
Acrophobia
Claustrophobia
Agoraphobia
Panic Disorder
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Anxiety Sensitivity
MODULE 13.3 - DISSOCIATIVE AND SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
Dissociative Disorders
Somatoform Disorders
Dissocaitive Identity Disorder (DID)
Conversion Disorder
Hypochondriasis
Secondary Gain
MODULE 13.4 - MOOD DISORDERS
Mood Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Dysthymic Disorder
Bipolor Disorder
Manic Episodes
Clclothymic Disorder
Learned Helplessness Model
Attributional Style
Depressive Attributional Style
Disinhibition Effect
MODULE 13.5 – SCHIZOPHRENIA
Schizophrenia
Psychotic Disorder
Thought Disorder
Positive Symptoms
Negative Symptoms
Disorganized Type
Catatonic Type
Waxy Flexibility
Paranoid Type
MODULE 13.6 - PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality Disorder
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Borderline Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)