American history review.docx

American history review Planning Your Score Goal In order to figure out how well you need to do in order to “pass” the AP exam, use the following steps. Multiply the number of correct multiple-choice answers by 1.125. Take the total and subtract 0.25 for each incorrect multiple-choice answer. Multiply the DBQ score (1-9) by 4.5 and add it to the total. Multiply each of the FRQ scores (1-9) by 2.75 and add it to the total. 3 = 65-73 points 4 = 100 points 5 = 117-122 points Please note that this formula is not exact, nor is it sanctioned by the AP Board. This is just a rough formula developed by teachers! Reviewing The Material I recommend that you take the following steps to review for the AP U.S. exam. I have listed them in what I consider the order of importance. Remember that every student is different – some may find certain tasks more helpful than others. Do what feels right to you. Review the format of the AP exam so that you know what is expected of you. Study the charts at the beginning of each unit in your textbook (there are six units total). These charts are the equivalent of the AP European SPERMA. Read the unit summaries at the beginning of each unit in your textbook. These summaries cover the main trends and ideas for each period in American history. Learn the information on the charts and lists in this packet, as well as the charts and lists you developed (or were given) during the school year. Do the activities in this packet. Take all the practice tests and do all the review activities you can find. This is the best way to find out where your weaknesses are. Review your lecture notes from class. AP U.S. Exam Overview On the day of the test, bring a watch, multiple pens, multiple pencils, and nothing else. The test will last 3 hours and 15 minutes. Your final score of 1-5 will be assigned based on how you performed in comparison to other students. You will not know everything on the test. This is normal. Section One: Multiple Choice: 55 Minutes: 80 Questions: 50% of Score Question Spread Questions are divided into groups based on difficulty level About 17% of the questions will cover 1600-1789 About 50% of the questions will cover 1790-1914 About 33% of the questions will cover 1915-present Typically, 35% of the questions are on political themes Typically, 35% of the questions are on social change Typically, 15% of the questions are on diplomatic relations and international affairs Typically, 10% of the questions are on economic themes Typically, 5% of the questions are on cultural and intellectual themes What Isn’t on the Test Obscure Trivia Military History Section Two: Free-Response Questions: 130 Minutes: 3 Essays: 50% of Score General Advice The first 15 minutes are a mandatory reading period for all questions. Plan your essays during this time. Read each question multiple times to make sure that you understand what it is asking. Even the most brilliant essay in the world will not receive credit if it does not address the specific question asked. Most questions have two parts. Find and underline them so you do not miss them. Use standard five-paragraph form whenever you can. This is not the time to experiment. The most important part of any essay is the thesis statement. Put it in your first paragraph. Make it explicit and detailed. Your thesis should basically answer the essay question in a single sentence. Underline it so the readers cannot possibly miss it. Document-Based Question: 45 Minutes This is the single most important question on the test. It counts as 45% of the free-response section score. Take notes on the documents as you read them. Try to find bias in as many documents as possible. Remember that the bulk of the essay should come from your own knowledge. If your essay is based only on the documents, it will not earn a high score. Two Regular FRQ Questions: 70 Minutes Together these count as 55% of the free-response section score. You are given two groups of two questions each. You must select and answer one question from each group. Group 1: Before the Civil War Group 2: After the Civil War Pack as many relevant facts as possible into the essays to show that you know the material. Be explicit. Give examples for everything you can. Being vague is a death sentence. Famous American Authors James Fennimore Cooper – First great American author; wrote in the early 19th century; wrote The Last of the Mohicans; popularized naturalist literature; explored the line between civilization and nature. Washington Irving – Another famous American author writing in early 19th century; often wrote about New York or the Hudson River Valley; created “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Ralph Waldo Emerson – Transcendentalist essayist and philosopher from New England; icon of the Romantic Age; wanted people to embrace change and value individuality; wrote “Self Reliance.” Henry David Thoreau – Follower of Emerson and a believer in the power of the individual to triumph over evil social pressures; wrote “Civil Disobedience” and Walden. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Romantic Age writer of the mid-19th century; often wrote about colonial New England; most famous for House of Seven Gables and The Scarlet Letter. Edgar Allan Poe – Romantic Age writer and poet; wrote about the dark side of mid-19th century society; famous short stories include “The Tell-Tale Heart” and “The Pit and the Pendulum.” Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Poet of the mid-19th century; wrote “Hiawatha” and “Paul Revere’s Ride.” Herman Melville – Writer of late 19th century; most books had a nautical theme; wrote Moby Dick. Walt Whitman – Romantic poet and essayist of the mid-19th century; most famous work is Leaves of Grass, a free verse collection reveling in emotions and sensations. Harriet Beecher Stowe – Northeastern political writer; her international hit Uncle Tom’s Cabin dramatized slave society and became a weapon used by abolitionists to alert people to the evils of slavery. Mark Twain – Perhaps the most famous American author; rooted in the realist tradition, Twain used humor and satire to dramatize life during the Gilded Age; works include Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer, The Innocents Abroad. Henry James – A contemporary of Twain, James depicted the complexities of characters in sophisticated post-bellum society; works include The Portrait of a Lady and The Bostonians. Upton Sinclair – Used novels to alert readers to social ills; The Jungle sensationalized and dramatized the lack of safety and sanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry. Edith Wharton – First great female writer of the modern era; her 1920 book The Age of Innocence details the vanishing world of “old money” New York society. F. Scott Fitzgerald – The most famous of the Jazz Age authors; hard-working and hard-partying; chronicled the reckless abandon and spiritual hollowness of the twenties; famous works include The Great Gatsby and This Side of Paradise. Sinclair Lewis – A contemporary of Fitzgerald; his work Main Street focused on exposing the provinciality and middle-class meanness of small-town society. William Faulkner – Described complexities of life in the South; first to succeed with the modern technique of multiple points of view; famous works include The Sound and the Fury and Absalom, Absalom. John Steinbeck – Most important of the Depression Era authors; most famous book The Grapes of Wrath chronicled the Joad family's migration from Oklahoma to California. Ernest Hemingway – Famed for his hard living, his masculine prose, and his spare writing style; wrote A Farewell to Arms, The Sun Also Rises, and The Old Man and the Sea. J.D. Salinger – Reclusive author; careful and studious style; most famous work is The Catcher in the Rye, a story about youth and disillusionment in postwar America. Jack Kerouac – Most famous of the "beat" generation of writers, who were violent and free-spirited youths wandering in postwar America; books include On the Road and The Dharma Bums. Joseph Heller – Author of Catch-22, which typifies postwar disillusionment by satirizing war. Famous American Artists John White – Leader of the lost colony at Roanoke; his pictures of Native Americans and vegetation convinced many to invest in or settle in Virginia colony. Paul Revere – One of the Sons of Liberty; published a rabble-rousing but historically dubious account of the Boston Massacre John Trumbull – First great American nationalist painter; painted battle scenes and portraits depicting Americans as heroic and noble. Frederic Edwin Church – Famous painter of the mid-19th century; part of the Hudson River School; specialized in large landscapes depicting the unspoiled beauty of the wilderness; believed in manifest destiny and westward migration. Hudson River School – Distinctly American movement in art in the mid-19th century; focused on large landscapes and natural settings; artists included Thomas Cole and Frederic Edwin Church. Thomas Eakins – Realist painter of the post-bellum period; contemporary and friend of Walt Whitman; focused on the ordinary; most famous work is The Gross Clinic. John Singer Sargent – Outgrowth and reaction to the realist movement; added elements of nature and Impressionism in his works; example shown is Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose. Winslow Homer – Another realist of the post-bellum period; focused on making the painted image as close as possible to reality; most famous work is Gulf Stream, depicting a black sailor in boat surrounded by sharks. Thomas Nast – Artist of the Gilded Age; famous for his cartoons depicting corporate greed and excess; also created the enduring image of St. Nicholas. Mary Cassatt – Considered one of the finest painters of the 19th century; Cassatt’s work was largely overlooked in her country and time; part of the realist movement but with shades of Impressionism. Ashcan School – New York movement in the early 20th century in which artists sought to depict the emotional realities of urban life; example shown is Queensborough Bridge by Ernest Lawson. Edward Hopper – A realist of the early 20th century; focused on distinctly American images of society; subjects included loneliness and isolation; most famous work is Nighthawks. Grant Wood – Most famous for his painting American Gothic, a depiction of agrarian Americans at the beginning of the Depression Era. WPA Art – Artistic works commissioned by the Works Progress Administration, designed to give jobs to artists willing to create works for public consumption; emphasized classic American values of hard work and ingenuity; example shown is Hay Making by Marguerite Zorach. Jackson Pollock – Greatest of the American abstract expressionists; artwork is non-representational and often involves dripping paint on canvas for effect. Mark Rothko – Another famous abstract expressionist; often used bright colors and geometric shapes to influence tone and mood; example shown is Orange & Yellow. Andy Warhol – Greatest of the pop artists; used the mass production technique of silk-screening to produce and reproduce images; commented on fame, consumerism, identity, and conformity. Roy Lichtenstein – Pop artist who used fanciful comic strips to comment on mass consumerism and conspicuous consumption. Supreme Court Cases Marbury v. Madison (1803, Marshall) – The court established its role as the arbiter of the constitutionality of federal laws, the principle is known as judicial review. Fletcher v. Peck (1810, Marshall) – The decision stemmed from the Yazoo land cases, 1803, and upheld the sanctity of contracts. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819, Marshall) – The Court ruled that states cannot tax the federal government (i.e. the Bank of the United States); used the phrase “the power to tax is the power to destroy;” confirmed the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819, Marshall) – New Hampshire had attempted to take over Dartmouth College by revising its colonial charter. The Court ruled that the charter was protected under the contract clause of the U. S. Constitution. Upheld the sanctity of contracts. Johnson v. McIntosh (1823, Marshall) – Established that Indian tribes had rights to tribal lands that preceded all other American law; only the federal government could take land from the tribes. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824, Marshall) – Clarified the commerce clause and affirmed Congressional power over interstate commerce. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831, Marshall) – “The conditions of the Indians in relation to the United States is perhaps unlike that of any two people in existence,” Chief Justice John Marshall wrote. “Their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian… (they are a) domestic dependent nation.” Established a “trust relationship” with the tribes directly under federal authority. Worcester v. Georgia (1832, Marshall) – Established tribal autonomy within their boundaries (the tribes were “distinct political communities, having territorial boundaries within which their authority is exclusive”). Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837, Taney) – Declared that the interests of the community are more important than the interests of business. Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842, Taney) – Said that labor unions were lawful and that the strike was a lawful weapon. Scott v. Sanford (1857, Taney) – Speaking for a widely divided court, Chief Justice Taney ruled that the slave Dred Scott was not a citizen and had no standing in court; Scott's residence in a free state had not made him free; Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in a territory (based on the 5th Amendment right of a person to be secure from seizure of property); effectively voided the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Ex Parte Milligan (1866) – Ruled that a civilian cannot be tried in military courts when civil courts are available. Civil Rights Cases of 1883 (single decision on a group of similar cases) – Legalized segregation in regard to private property. Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois (1886) – Declared that state-passed Granger laws regulating interstate commerce were unconstitutional. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad Co. v. Minnesota (1890) – Found that Granger law regulations were violations of the 5th Amendment right to property. Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust (1895) – Declared income taxes unconstitutional. U. S. v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895) – Due to a narrow interpretation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, undermined the authority of the federal government to act against monopolies. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – Legalized segregation in publicly owned facilities on the basis of “separate but equal.” “Insular Cases” / Downes v. Bidwell (1901) – Confirmed the right of the federal government to place tariffs on goods entering the U.S. From U.S. territories on the grounds that “the Constitution does not follow the flag.” Northern Securities Co. v. U. S. (1904) – Re-established the authority of the federal government to fight monopolies under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Lochner v. New York (1905) – Declared unconstitutional a New York act limiting the working hours of bakers on the basis of 14th Amendment rights. Muller v. Oregon (1908) – Recognized a 10-hour workday for women laundry workers on the grounds of health and community concerns. Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918) – Declared the Keating-Owen Act (a child labor act) unconstitutional on the grounds that it was an invasion of state authority. Schenck v. U. S. (1919) – Unanimously upheld the Espionage Act of 1917, which declared that people who interfered with the war effort were subject to imprisonment; declared that the 1st Amendment right to freedom of speech was not absolute; free speech could be limited if its exercise presented a “clear and present danger.” Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (1923) – Declared unconstitutional a minimum wage law for women on the grounds that it denied women freedom of contract. Schechter v. U. S. (1936) – Unanimously declared the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) unconstitutional on three grounds: that the act delegated legislative power to the executive; that there was a lack of constitutional authority for such legislation; and that it sought to regulate businesses that were wholly intrastate in character. Korematsu v. U. S. (1941) – Upheld the constitutionality of detention camps for Japanese-Americans during WWII. Ex Parte Endo (1944) – Forbade the internment of Japanese-Americans born in the U. S. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954, Warren) – Unanimous decision declaring “separate but equal” unconstitutional. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – Extended to the defendant the right of counsel in all state and federal criminal trials, regardless of ability to pay. Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) – Ruled that a defendant must be allowed access to a lawyer before questioning by police. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – The court ruled that those subjected to in-custody interrogation must be advised of their right to an attorney and their right to remain silent. Roe v. Wade (1973) – The court legalized abortion by ruling that state laws could not restrict access to it during the first three months of pregnancy. Based on 4th Amendment rights of a person to be secure in their persons. U. S. v. Richard Nixon (1974) – The court rejected Richard Nixon’s claim to an absolute “executive privilege” against any judicial process. Bakke v. Regents of the University of California (1978) – Ambiguous ruling by a badly divided court that dealt with affirmative action programs using race as a basis for selecting participants. The court in general upheld affirmative action, but with a 4/4/1 split, it was a very weak decision. Land Acquisitions Louisiana Purchase: Purchased by the United States from France in 1803. Some 800,000 square miles in area, the territory included present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota west of the Mississippi River, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, most of Kansas, the portions of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Rockies, and Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (but including New Orleans). Florida: In 1810, American settlers in the western part of Florida rebelled against Spanish rule and declared their independence as the Republic of West Florida. This area, and other territory between the Mississippi and Perdido rivers, was subsequently annexed by the United States. After long negotiations, Spain agreed in 1819 to cede Florida to the United States through the Adams-Onis Treaty. A state constitution was drafted in 1838, and Florida was admitted to the Union on March 3, 1845. Texas: In 1836, Texas became a separate Republic after the rebelling from Mexico. The United States Senate rejected a treaty to annex Texas in 1844, but it reversed that decision the following year, and Texas joined the Union on December 29, 1845. Mexican War / Gadsden Purchase: The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican War and ceded California, New Mexico, and Utah Territories to the U.S. in exchange for $15 million. The Gadsden Purchase was made in 1853 to obtain Mexican land for a route for the transcontinental railroad. Alaska: Russia sold its colony to U.S. William H. Seward, Secretary of State, on March 11, 1867. Russian Ambassador Baron Eduard Stoeckl drew up the Treaty of Cession and sent it to the government for ratification. The agreed price was $7.2 million. Puerto Rico: As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), Puerto Rico was ceded to the U.S. in the Treaty of Paris. In 1900, Congress established a civil government on the island. Citizenship was granted to Puerto Ricans in 1917, and the U.S. instituted measures designed to solve various economic and social problems in the overpopulated area. Guam: In 1898, by the terms of the Treaty of Paris, the island was ceded by Spain to the United States. Philippines: By the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Spain ceded the entire archipelago to the United States in return for $20 million. In December of that year the U.S. proclaimed the establishment of military rule. Wake: Wake Island was formally occupied by the U.S. in 1898. In 1834, it was placed under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Navy, and in 1935, a commercial air base was established on the atoll to serve planes on flights between the U.S. and Asia. Hawaii: President McKinley signed a resolution on July 7, 1898, and the formal transfer of Hawaiian sovereignty to the United States took place in Honolulu on August 12, 1898. In 1900, Hawaii became a U.S. territory, making its citizens U.S. citizens. Hawaii was proclaimed the 50th state on August 21, 1959. Panama Canal Zone: 1904-1979. Territory in Central Panama governed by the United States for the operation of the Panama Canal. The Canal Zone was created under the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty. It was signed in 1903 by the newly independent nation of Panama and the United States. The treaty gave the United States the right to build and operate the Panama Canal, to control the Canal Zone as if it were U.S. Territory, and to annex more land if necessary for canal operations and defense. Virgin Islands: During the Civil War (1861-65) the Union began to negotiate with Denmark for the purchase of the Virgin Islands in order to establish naval bases in the Caribbean. Nothing came of the negotiations until World War I. In 1917, the U.S. bought the Virgin Islands for $25 million and built a naval base in order to protect the Panama Canal and prevent Germany's seizure of the islands. Political Parties First Two-Party System (1780s-1801) Democratic-Republicans Federalists States' rights. Strict interpretation of the Constitution. Agriculture and rural life. Strongest in South and West. Sympathy with France. Civil liberties and trust in the people. Strong central government. Loose interpretation of the Constitution. Commerce and manufacturing. Strongest in Northeast. Close ties with Britain. Order and stability. Second Two-Party System (1836-1850) Democrats Whigs Party of tradition. Looked backward to the past. Spoke to the fears of Americans. Opposed banks and corporations. Opposed state-legislated reforms. Preferred individual freedom of choice. Were Jeffersonian agrarians who favored farms, rural independence, states’ rights, and the right to own slaves. Favored rapid territorial expansion. Believed in progress through external growth. Party of modernization. Looked forward to the future. Spoke to the hopes of Americans. Promoted economic growth, especially transportation and banks. Advocated state-legislated reforms such as temperance, public schools, and prison reform. Favored industry, urban growth, and federal government. Favored gradual territorial expansion. Believed in progress through internal growth. Mid-19th Century Parties Opposing the Democrats Liberty Party Free Soil Party Abolitionist party that ran candidate James Birney for President in 1844. Won only 2% of the vote but drew votes away from the Whigs, especially in New York. Not abolitionist, but opposed to the expansion of slavery in the territories. Won 10% of the popular vote with Martin Van Buren as their candidate in 1848. Lost 50% of their support in 1852, when they repudiated the Compromise of 1850. American Party Whigs The "Know Nothing" Party. Nativist party based on opposition to immigration and a focus on temperance. Ran Millard Fillmore in 1856 and won 21% of the popular vote. Republican Party absorbed them in 1856. Southern "Cotton" Whigs eventually drifted into the Democratic Party. Northern "Conscience" Whigs moved to new parties such as the Free Soil Party, and later, the Republican Party. Republican Party Formed in 1854 by a coalition of Independent Democrats, Free Soilers, and Conscience Whigs united in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Stressed free labor and opposed the extension of slavery in the territories. Moderates like Abraham Lincoln opposed slavery on "moral" grounds, while admitting that slavery had a "right" to exist where the Constitution originally allowed it to exist. John C. Fremont was the first Republican candidate in the election of 1856. The Election of 1860 Democrats Republicans Split at the 1860 party convention, when a platform defending slavery was defeated and Deep South delegates walked out. At a splinter convention, Stephen Douglas of Illinois was nominated as a candidate on a platform opposing any Congressional interference with slavery. Deep South delegates met and nominated John Breckenridge of Kentucky as a candidate on a pro-slavery platform. The Republicans, by this time decidedly opposed to slavery, drew in northerners with a platform favoring the Homestead Act, protective tariffs, and transportation improvements. Opposed the extension of slavery but defended the right of states to control their own "domestic institutions." Abraham Lincoln was nominated as the candidate on the third ballot. Politics in the Gilded Age Republicans & Democrats The main parties blur during this period, with loyalties determined primarily by regional, religious, and ethnic differences as opposed to political platforms. Voter turnout for elections averaged over 78 percent (60 to 80 percent in off years). Both parties were pro-business, opposed to any type of economic radicalism or reform, and supportive of "sound currency" and the economic status quo. Federal government and, to some extent, state governments tended to do very little. Republicans dominated the Senate; Democrats dominated the House of Representatives. Republican splinter groups include the Stalwarts, Halfbreeds, and Mugwumps. Populist Party Formed in 1891 by remnants of the Farmers' Alliances. Sported a long list of demands that included the free coinage of silver, government ownership of the railroads, telegraphs, and telephone lines, a graduated income tax, the direct election of U.S. senators, and the use of initiative, referendum, and recall. The party eventually faded because the farmers' situation improved in the late 1890s, and also because its political agenda was absorbed by the Republicans and Democrats. Progressive Era Politics (1900-1920) There were three "Progressive" Presidents – Theodore Roosevelt (Republican), William Howard Taft (Republican), and Woodrow Wilson (Democrat). Believed that the laissez-faire system was obsolete, yet supported capitalism. Applied the principles of science and efficiency to economics, social institutions, and politics. Viewed government as a key player in creating an orderly, stable, and improved society. Generally positive in outlook. Believed that the government had the power to combat special interests and work for the good of the community, state, and nation. The political party system was singled out as corrupt, outmoded, inefficient, and undemocratic. Believed corruption could be diminished by putting more power in the hands the people, as well as non-elected professional officials. Adopted many Populist causes, including the referendum, the initiative, and the direct election of Senators. Progressive Amendments to the U.S. Constitution = 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th Amendments. The Republican Era (1921-1933) Presidents Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. Position of the government was decidedly pro-business. Though conservative, the government did experiment with new approaches to public policy. Supported an American culture that was increasingly urban, industrial, and consumer-oriented. Conflicts surfaced regarding immigration restriction, Prohibition, and race relations. The Democratic Political Legacy of the New Deal (1933-1952) Democrats established a power base with the support of ethnic groups, city dwellers, organized labor, blacks, and a broad section of the middle class. Increased expectations and acceptance of government involvement in American life. Made the federal government a protector of interest groups and a mediator of competition. Regulated American business to protect it from the excesses and problems of the past. Fair Deal of the post-war Truman administration continued the trend in governmental involvement with expanded Social Security benefits, an increase of the minimum wage, a full employment program, slum clearance, public housing, and government sponsorship of scientific research. In 1948, the liberal Democratic coalition split into the two branches detailed below. States' Rights Progressive Party Were Southern conservative Democrats, known as Dixiecrats. Opposed the civil rights plank in the Democratic platform. Nominated South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond for President. Were liberal Democrats who favored socialist policies, the abolition of racial segregation, and a conciliatory attitude toward Russia. Nominated Henry A. Wallace for President. Post-World War II Politics Democrats Republicans Maintained their power base of organized labor, urban voters, and immigrants. As the post-war period progressed, advocated larger roles for the federal government in regulating business. By the 1960s, advocated extensive governmental involvement in social issues like education and urban renewal. Became associated with the civil rights movement and championed the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. The Republicans accused the Democrats of being "soft” on Communism. Promised to end the Korean War. Conservative Southern Democrats, the "Dixiecrats," increasingly associated themselves with Republican candidates opposing civil rights legislation. Nixon's New Federalism Democrats Republicans By the 1960s, was fragmented and seemingly incapable of dealing with the social and political turmoil caused by the Vietnam War. In the post-Vietnam period, Democrats advocated the extension of civil rights, "reproductive rights" (birth control and abortion rights), fair housing legislation, etc. Opposition to the Vietnam War and growing federal social programs "converted" Democrats in increasing numbers. Defended the supposed "silent majority." Advocated a policy of cutting back federal power and returning that power to the states. This was known as the "New Federalism." Reagan and the New Right Democrats Republicans Supported environmental legislation, limits on economic development, and an end to the production of nuclear weapons and power plants. The pro-choice movement emerged during the 1980s to defend a woman's right to choose. Affirmative action – the use of racial quotas to "balance" the workforce – was supported by the Democrats. Spurred on by the rise of Evangelical Christianity, the South began voting Republican. Ethnic suburbanites and young conservatives formed a "New Right" supporting Reagan on a "law and order" platform. Advocated stricter crime, drugs, and porn laws, opposed abortion, supported an increase in defense spending, and supported tax cuts. Reagan curbed the government expansion but did not reduce its size or the scope of its powers. A Review of Elections (1789-2000) Year Parties Issues 1789 No Parties – Washington Washington was elected unanimously by the 69 electors. 1792 No Parties – Washington 1796 Democratic-Republicans – Thomas Jefferson Federalists – John Adams (Electoral) The electoral system resulted in Adams as President and Jefferson as Vice-President. 1800 Democratic-Republicans – Thomas Jefferson (Electoral) Federalists – John Adams Jefferson and Burr both received 73 electoral votes. House of Representatives elected Jefferson in the “Revolution of 1800.” 1804 Democratic-Republicans – Thomas Jefferson (Electoral) Federalists – Thomas Pinckney Jefferson’s re-election was ensured because of his success and the Louisiana Purchase. 1808 Democratic-Republicans – James Madison (Electoral) Federalists – Thomas Pinckney Independent Democratic-Republicans – George Clinton The “Quids” tried to work against Madison, Jefferson’s handpicked successor, but failed. Federalists protested the Embargo Act. 1812 Democratic-Republicans – James Madison (Electoral) Federalists – DeWitt Clinton The major issue was the War of 1812. 1816 Democratic-Republicans – James Monroe (Electoral) Federalists – Rufus King Opposition to the War of 1812 by the Federalists practically ended the Federalist party. King was an early opponent of slavery. 1820 Democratic-Republicans – James Monroe (Electoral) There was no organized opposition. 1824 Democratic-Republicans – Andrew Jackson (Popular) Democratic-Republicans – Henry Clay Democratic-Republicans – William Crawford Democratic-Republicans – John Q. Adams Because no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes, the election was sent to the House of Representatives. Adams won thanks to the “corrupt bargain.” 1828 Democratic-Republicans – Andrew Jackson National Republicans – John Q. Adams In a campaign filled with mudslinging, Jackson’s win was declared a victory for the common man. 1832 Democrats – Andrew Jackson National Republicans – Henry Clay Anti-Masonic – William Wirt Party conventions were used for the first time. Jackson saw his win as a mandate to dismantle the Bank of the United States. 1836 Democrats – Martin Van Buren Whigs – Daniel Webster Whigs – William Harrison Whigs – Hugh White Jackson supported Van Buren. Each Whig candidate represented a different region and hoped to prevent Van Buren from gaining a majority in the Electoral College. The plan failed. 1840 Democrats – Martin Van Buren Whigs – William Harrison Harrison won with the “log cabin and hard cider” campaign, but was dead a month later. This was the first election to use slogans and appeal to the masses. “Tippecanoe and Tyler, too!” 1844 Democrats – James Polk Whigs – Henry Clay Liberty Party – James Birney The main issues were slavery, Manifest Destiny, the annexation of Texas, and the addition of Oregon. 1848 Democrats – Lewis Cass Whigs – Zachary Taylor Free Soilers – Martin Van Buren Both major parties tried to avoid the slavery issue. The Democrats ran without an established platform. 1852 Democrats – Franklin Pierce Whigs – Winfield Scott Free Soilers – John Hale Not all Whigs supported Scott. Election was marred by insults and allegations about the candidates. In the end, the disgusted voters elected the dark-horse Pierce. 1856 Democrats – James Buchanan Republicans – John Fremont Know Nothings – Millard Fillmore Buchanan was nominated because he had a low profile. He supported the Compromise of 1850 and opposed federal intervention in slavery. 1860 Southern Democrats – John Breckenridge Northern Democrats – Stephen Douglas Republicans – Abraham Lincoln Constitutional Unionist – John Bell Republicans opposed slavery in the territories, but upheld slavery in the southern states. Lincoln won when the other candidates split the vote on a regional basis. 1864 Democrats – George McClellan Radical Democrats – John Fremont Republicans / Union Party – Abraham Lincoln Democrats wanted a cease-fire. For a while it looked like it might be close, but significant Union victories allowed Lincoln to win easily. 1868 Democrats – Horatio Seymour Republicans – Ulysses Grant Republicans swore to continue Reconstruction. Grant did not really campaign but was able to win the election because of his military record. 1872 Democrats – Horace Greeley Republicans – Ulysses Grant Republicans called for more rights for women and an end to racial discrimination. Greeley campaigned against the corruption of Grant. 1876 Democrats – Samuel Tilden Republicans – Rutherford B. Hayes (Electoral) Most Republicans wanted to continue control of the South. The House gave the disputed election to Hayes after he promised to end Reconstruction. 1880 Democrats – Winfield Hancock Republicans – James Garfield Greenback Party – James B. Weaver Garfield was assassinated after six months in office. Chester A. Arthur became the new President. 1884 Democrats – Grover Cleveland Republicans – James Blaine Arthur wanted the Republican nomination but had little support. The main campaign issue was the integrity of the candidates. 1888 Democrats – Grover Cleveland Republicans – Benjamin Harrison (Electoral) Prohibition – Clinton B. Fisk Harrison supported strong tariffs. Cleveland was against high tariffs. The election was low-key and quite close. Cleveland won the popular vote. 1892 Democrats – Grover Cleveland Republicans – Benjamin Harrison Populists – James Weaver The issue of tariffs dominated the election. Weaver was supported for his campaign to mint silver. 1896 Democrats – William Jennings Bryan Republicans – William McKinley Democrats supported the coinage of silver. Bryan toured while McKinley stayed at home. Bryan was portrayed as a socialist and a radical. 1900 Democrats – William Jennings Bryan Republicans – William McKinley Prohibition – John C. Wooley McKinley’s running mate was Theodore Roosevelt. The big issue was the independence of newly acquired territories. 1904 Democrats – Alton B. Parker Republicans – Theodore Roosevelt Socialist – Eugene Debs Prohibition – Silas Swallow In an election almost without issues, the focus was on the personality of the candidates. 1908 Democrats – William Jennings Bryan Republicans – William Taft Socialist – Eugene Debs Prohibition – Eugene Chafin Taft was Roosevelt’s handpicked successor. 1912 Democrats – Woodrow Wilson Republicans – William Taft Socialist – Eugene Debs Bull Moose (Progressive) – Theodore Roosevelt It had taken over 400 ballots to nominate Wilson. Roosevelt left the Republicans to form the Bull Moose party. Splitting the Republican vote meant an easy win for Wilson. 1916 Democrats – Woodrow Wilson Republicans – Charles Hughes Socialist – Allan. L. Benson Prohibition – J. F. Hanley Wilson ran with the slogan, “He kept us out of the war!” 1920 Democrats – James Cox Republicans – Warren Harding Socialist – Eugene Debs Farmer-Laborer – P. P. Christensen Harding was selected by party bosses and supported Prohibition. Cox selected Franklin Roosevelt as his running mate. Cox opposed Prohibition and supported the League of Nations. 1924 Democrats – John Davis Republicans – Calvin Coolidge Progressives – Robert La Follette The first election to use the radio. Coolidge won despite revelations of corruption in the Harding administration. 1928 Democrats – Al Smith Republicans – Herbert Hoover Smith was the first Catholic to run for President. Hoover promised, “A chicken in every pot, a car in every garage.” 1932 Democrats – Franklin D. Roosevelt Republicans – Herbert Hoover Socialists – Norman Thomas Roosevelt promised to work on ending the Great Depression. The people were tired of Hoover. 1936 Democrats – Franklin D. Roosevelt Republicans – Alfred Landon Union – William Lemke Roosevelt ran on the New Deal platform, which was attacked by Landon. Roosevelt won easily. 1940 Democrats – Franklin D. Roosevelt Republicans – Wendell Wilkie Wilkie ranted about Hitler, called Roosevelt a “tired, old man,” and created drama over the issue of a third term. Roosevelt won because he carried most of the larger cities. 1944 Democrats – Franklin D. Roosevelt Republicans – Thomas Dewey In the middle of the war, there was no doubt Roosevelt would be re-elected. He made Truman the new Vice-President. 1948 Democrats – Harry Truman Republicans – John Dewey Progressives – Henry Wallace States’ Rights Democrats (Dixiecrats) – Strom Thurmond Democrats supporting Civil Rights legislation caused a faction led by Strom Thurmond to desert the party and become Dixiecrats. Truman was the underdog, but ran a populist campaign that proved to be successful. Truman was not declared the winner until the following day. 1952 Democrats – Adlai Stevenson Republicans – Dwight Eisenhower Both parties considered Eisenhower a possible candidate. Most of the Republican attacks came from Vice-Presidental nominee Richard Nixon, who gave the famous “Checkers” speech. 1956 Democrats – Adlai Stevenson Republicans – Dwight Eisenhower Eisenhower was a very popular President and there was little the Democrats could do to oppose him. Eisenhower won in a landslide. 1960 Democrats – John Kennedy Republicans – Richard Nixon Kennedy was the first Catholic to be elected President. Nixon ran on an anti-Communist platform and criticized Kennedy for being inexperienced. The election saw the first use of televised debates. Kennedy won a tight race. 1964 Democrats – Lyndon Johnson Republicans – Barry Goldwater Goldwater called for deep cuts in social programs. He was against civil rights legislation, and called for the possible use of nuclear weapons in Vietnam. Johnson promised more social reform and won in a landslide. 1968 Democrats – Hubert Humphrey Republicans – Richard Nixon American Independent – George Wallace Nixon promised to restore law and order, which was appealing after the problems of the 1960s. Democrats were split on the issue of Vietnam. The Chicago riots really hurt the Democrats. 1972 Democrats – George McGovern Republicans – Richard Nixon McGovern promised to end the Vietnam War. Publicity associated the Democratic party with blacks, women, and radicals. Nixon stressed foreign policy and at first managed to avoid the problems of Watergate. When Nixon resigned, Ford became the only President who was not elected President or Vice-President. 1976 Democrats – Jimmy Carter Republicans – Gerald Ford Carter promised “no more secrecy” in government. 1980 Democrats – Jimmy Carter Republicans – Ronald Reagan Independent – John Anderson Carter was hurt by the Iranian hostage situation and high inflation. Reagan appealed to those who wanted less government. 1984 Democrats – Walter Mondale Republicans – Ronald Reagan Libertarian – David Bergland Despite his age, Reagan enjoyed enormous popularity. Mondale selected Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate – the first time a woman ran on a major ticket. 1988 Democrats – Michael Dukakis Republicans – George Bush Libertarian – Ron Paul Vice-President under Reagan for 8 years, Bush benefited from Reagan’s popularity. Dukakis was accused being soft on crime. 1992 Democrats – William Clinton Republicans – George Bush Independent – Ross Perot Perot promised to fix the deficit and won 19% of the popular vote, ensuring a Democratic win. Clinton and Gore were the first “baby-boomer” ticket. Bush was popular after the Gulf War, but was hampered by a poor economy. 1996 Democrats – William Clinton Republicans – Bob Dole Reform Party – Ross Perot Perot won 8% of the popular vote but no electoral votes. The over 7 million votes for Perot could have changed the result. Clinton called for a balanced budget and “values.” 2000 Democrats – Al Gore Republicans – George W. Bush (Electoral) Green Party – Ralph Nader The result of the election hinged upon the state of Florida, which had used ballots that could not be counted. The Supreme Court decided the issue and Gore conceded the election. Major Government Scandals Tweed Ring: 1869-1871. Embezzled money from the New York State government created a mob presence within the government. Credit Mobilier: 1872. A dummy construction company was created to skim money from the Union Pacific Railroad. Government officials were bribed. Whiskey Ring: 1872-1876. Grant and his Secretary of State put an excise tax on whiskey, bringing more money into the government for the President’s use. Teapot Dome: 1921. Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall secured the transfer of several naval oil reserves to his jurisdiction. Then he leased the holdings at Teapot Dome to Harry Sinclair and Edward Doheny. Sinclair and Doheny, in turn, gave Fall illegal loans amounting to $405,000. Sherman Adams: 1958. The Chief of Staff received an oriental rug and fur coat for helping a Boston industrialist deal with the federal bureaucracy. Watergate: 1973. Nixon wanted information about the Democrats for the upcoming election. His advisors tried to bug the Democratic headquarters at the Watergate Hotel. The Republican buggers were caught in the act. As a result, McCord, the head of the operation, confessed and admitted the plot involved the President. This initiated a series of events that caused Nixon to resign from his post to avoid impeachment. Iran-Contra Affair: 1985-86. The people involved were William Casey, head of CIA; Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council; Admiral John Poindexter, National Security Advisor; and Robert McFarlane, former National Security Advisor. They sold arms to Iranians to encourage their aid in releasing American hostages in Lebanon. The profits from these deals were diverted to the Nicaraguan Contras to get around Congressional restrictions on funding the revolution there. Hearings were held in May 1987, during Reagan's presidency. American Involvement in Wars King Philip's War: 1675-1676. An Indian chief, King Philip, led a war to exterminate the whites. Over 2,000 settlers died before the rebellion was subdued. This war led to a series of other conflicts. French & Indian War: 1754-1763. A war between the French and the British over control of North America. It was called the Seven Years’ War in Europe. The American theater of the war started in 1756. The French lost all claims to land they occupied in North America to the British. The French held onto a few islands in the Caribbean while the British controlled the rest of continent. Revolutionary War: 1776-1781. The American colonists fought for their freedom from the “tyrannical and treacherous” rule of the British. Animosity had developed over many years of taxing and arbitrary rule by the British. Eventually, with the help of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the Americans gained the confidence and the motivation to separate themselves from the British. The Revolution ended with the surrender of General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 17, 1781. Barbary Pirates: 1801-1805. The pirates attacked American ships in the Mediterranean and were met by the American naval fleet. The conflict ultimately ended in 1805. War of 1812: 1812-1815. The ultimate cause of the war was the issuing of the Non-Intercourse Act in 1809 (replaced by Macon's Bill in 1810) prohibiting trade with France and Great Britain. In response, the British issued "Orders in Council" and the French issues decrees, in which both claimed the right to impress foreign vessels entering their harbors. No change in power or land came from the war. It was not officially ended until 1824 with the Treaty of Ghent. Mexican-American War: 1846-1848. Fought over the American annexation of Texas in 1845, claims against the Mexican government by Americans for property damage, and the American desire to acquire California. The U.S. destroyed the Mexicans. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo established the boundary of Texas at the Rio Grande River and ended the war. The Civil War: 1861-1865. Fought over states’ rights, the treatment of slaves, and the “black question” in general. Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox, Virginia on April 9, 1865. The war led to a period of extensive Reconstruction in which the government tried to rebuild the nation and create "liberty, fairness, and justice for all." Spanish American War: 1898. The inability of Spain and Cuba to resolve the revolution in Cuban, and the loss of American markets led to the declaration of war. Americans supported the Cubans in ousting the Spanish, and also seized the Philippines. World War I: 1914-1918. Known as the Great War. American was at first neutral, but by 1917 declared war. The Treaty of Versailles, which was rewritten several times before being passed by the Senate, ended the war and forced the Germans to pay reparations to all countries affected. World War II: 1939-1945. The Allied Powers (United States, Soviet Union, France, England) fought the Axis Powers (Germany, Japan, Italy). Germany began conquering the world with its takeover of Poland. During this period Japan was invading several of its neighboring islands. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Americans took action and declared war on Japan. The Americans created the first atomic bomb and dropped it on Hiroshima and then again on Nagasaki. Korean Conflict: 1950-1953. North Korea vs. South Korea, with the United Nations intervening on behalf of South Korea. With the help of the American force that landed at Inchon, the North was pushed to the Yalu river in North Korea. Here they were met by Chinese soldiers and were driven back to just below the original dividing line. The war ended with no change in land or power. Vietnam War: 1968-1975. Communist North Vietnam wanted to take over South Vietnam. Thanks to an alliance with China and Russia, the North was able to get the resources, weapons, and materials it needed to fight. The Americans sent several thousand advisors to aid the South. Later, America stepped in to fight directly. Nixon's policy of Vietnamization handed the chore of fighting back to South Vietnam, allowing the U.S. to withdraw entirely by 1973. North Vietnam took Saigon in 1975, thus ending the war and uniting the country under Communism. Persian Gulf War: 1990. Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded Kuwait and threatened Saudi Arabia. By taking over these regions, Hussein would have been able to control much of the world's oil. He was stopped by the intervention of America in Operation Desert Storm. In 1991, Bush issued an ultimatum for Hussein to pull out of Kuwait or face invasion. Saddam failed to comply and the Americans declared war. Iraq was defeated within 100 hours. Rebellions / Controversies Bacon's Rebellion: 1676. Nathaniel Bacon and his men burned Jamestown, but Bacon died during the rebellion. Resulted in no significant change. Pontiac's Rebellion: 1763. Led by Chief Pontiac, Indians attacked white settlements. This led to the creation of the Proclamation Line of 1763, which prohibited white settlements to the west of the Appalachian Mountains. Paxton Boys: 1763. A group of men from Pennsylvania, upset that they weren't receiving any aid to stop Indian attacks, murdered a village of Conestoga Indians. They were talked out of continuing their rampage by Benjamin Franklin. Shays’ Rebellion: 1786. Caused by high taxes and economic hardships. Daniel Shays, an upset farmer, led a force to close courthouses so that no more proceedings could take place to condemn people to jail for not paying taxes. This rebellion led many to call for a stronger government to protect them. XYZ Affair: 1798. Three men from America were sent to persuade the French to stop harassing American ships. Each American was met by a French advisor (X, Y, Z) to solicit bribes. All three Americans refused. Public resentment of the French ran high when this incident became public knowledge. Coxey's Army: 1894. Populist businessman Jacob Coxey led a march of millions of unemployed people into Washington, demanding a work relief program. Bonus Army: 1932. A group of 14,000 unemployed military veterans (the Bonus Expeditionary Force) went to Washington to lobby Congress for immediate payment of a bonus approved in 1926. The Bonus Army was removed by federal troops headed by MacArthur, Eisenhower, and Patton. Watts Riot: 1965. A race riot in Los Angeles. Several people were killed. A string of other race riots followed. My Lai Massacre: 1968. Reports that an American unit had massacred civilians, including dozens of women and children, in a Vietnamese hamlet called My Lai stirred controversy over the purpose of the war. Government Crises Nullification Crisis: 1832-1833. Resulted from the passage of the "Tariff of Abominations" in 1828. Calhoun issued the Ordinance of Nullification, ordering customs officials to stop collection taxes at the Port of Charleston. Andrew Jackson, in turn, issued a Force Bill giving him the power to use federal troops to collect taxes. Venezuelan Boundary Dispute: 1893-1895. Dispute over the boundary of British Guiana in South America. Britain agreed to respect the Monroe Doctrine and back down on its position in deference to the United States. Little Rock Confrontation: 1957. About 10,000 federal troops and 100 paratroopers were used to stop white attacks on blacks enrolling in Central High in September of 1957. A small number of federal troops remained at the school for the rest of the year. Bay of Pigs: 1961. The CIA trained men to invade Cuba and overthrow the Communist government of Fidel Castro. A force landed at the Bay of Pigs and was immediately subdued and forced to surrender. Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962. An American U-2 spy plane revealed the Soviet construction of missile silos in Cuban territory in October of 1962. Kennedy called for Khrushchev to dismantle the sites and remove all weapons. Khrushchev complied on the condition that America remove its missile sites in Turkey. Oil Crisis: 1973. The Arabs cut oil supply to the United States, Japan, and most of Europe in an effort to compel Israel to withdraw from lands gained during the Six Day War of 1967. The Americans would have suffered due to their dependence on oil for petroleum. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger negotiated a deal to avoid the continuation of the oil crisis. Iran Hostage Crisis: 1979. A 1978 revolution in Iran forced the Shah to flee. The U.S. had supported the Shah with arms and money. The revolutionaries invaded the American embassy in Iran, threatening to kill the hostages if the Shah was not returned to Iran to face trial for his actions. Carter rejected the demand, froze all Iranian assets in the United States, and issued an embargo on trade. All hostages were released in 1980, once the Shah had died and Reagan had been sworn in as President. Grenada Action: 1983. Reagan sent troops to Grenada to overthrow a new Cuban-backed regime. Invasion of Panama: 1989. President Bush sent troops to overthrow General Manuel Noriega, who refused to yield power when his figurehead of a candidate was defeated in a national election. Noriega was under indictment in United States for drug trafficking. Acts & Laws 1649-1774 Act / Law Date Identification Toleration Act 1649 Guaranteed freedom of religion to anyone in the colony of Maryland "professing to believe” in Jesus Christ. Purpose was to ensure toleration for Catholics in Maryland. Navigation Acts 1650-1673 Series of acts to enforce mercantilist policy in the colonies. All trade was to be carried on English ships (or colonial ships with English crews). Imports to the colonies were required to go through English ports. Certain colonial goods were to be sold only to England (tobacco originally, expanded later). Proclamation Act 1763 Made at the end of the French & Indian War. Prohibited the settlement of British settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Goal was to restrict settlement until peace negotiations with Indians could be completed. Colonists were upset because it restricted their freedom. Sugar Act (Revenue Act) 1764 Purpose was to raise revenue. Duties were placed on sugar and molasses imported into the North American colonies from the West Indies. Quartering Act 1765 Required colonists to provide food and living quarters for British troops. Stamp Act 1765 Required all legal documents, licenses, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards to carry a tax stamp. These items had long been taxed at higher rate in England. This was the first direct tax to be paid by buyers in the colonies. Declaratory Act 1766 Passed at the same time the Stamp Act was repealed. Proclaimed that Parliament had a right to tax and make colonial laws “in all cases whatsoever.” Townshend Acts 1767 Called for the suspension of the New York Assembly for defiance of the Quartering Act. Placed import duties on tea, glass, and paper. Revenue raised was to be used to pay crown officials, who were independent of the colonial government. Townshend Acts (Repealed) 1770 The Townshend Acts were repealed, but a small, symbolic tax on tea was retained. Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) 1774 Reaction to Boston Tea Party. Many laws passed at the same time. The port of Boston was closed. Reduced the power of Massachusetts legislature. Royal officials were to be tried in England. Expanded the Quartering Act. Led to the call for the First Continental Congress. Quebec Act 1774 Called a “good act in bad company.” Organized Canadian lands received from France and allowed Canadians to continue their established traditions. Angered the colonists, who viewed the Quebec Act as favoritism. Acts & Laws 1774-1850 Act / Law Date Identification Land Ordinance Act 1785 Provided for the surveying of western territories into six-square-mile townships before sale. Townships were to be subdivided into 36 sections of 640 acres each. Northwest Ordinance 1787 Set the rules for achieving territorial status and then statehood. Outlawed slavery in the Old Northwest. Hamilton's Financial Program 1790 Proposed the federal assumption of state debts and the establishment of a national bank. Included an extensive program for the federal stimulation of industrial development through subsidies and tax incentives. Funding came from an excise tax on whiskey and from tariffs on imports. Alien & Sedition Acts 1798 The Alien Act raised new hurdles in the path of immigrants trying to obtain citizenship – to become a citizen one now had to live in the country for 14 years instead of 5. The Sedition Act broadened the powers of the Adams administration to muzzle newspaper critics. Virginia & Kentucky Resolves 1798-1799 Madison and Jefferson came up with these resolves in response to Alien and Sedition Acts. They proposed that states be empowered to nullify federal laws. The resolves were only adopted in Kentucky and Virginia, and thus died. Missouri Compromise 1820 Henry Clay proposed that the Louisiana Purchase be divided at 3630' – the north for non-slave states and the south for slave states. Meanwhile, Missouri would become a slave state and Maine a free state, thus balancing representation in the Senate. Tariff of Abominations 1828 Increased the import tariff to levels deemed intolerable by the South, which relied on foreign trade. Tariff of 1832 1832 Lowered the tariff rates, but South Carolina protested because the reform was not extensive enough. Compromise Tariff 1833 Henry Clay’s compromise tariff provided a gradual reduction of rates over time to 1816 levels and was accompanied by the Force Bill. Compromise of 1850 1850 Compromise over admission of states from the Mexican Cession. California became a free state, the slave trade was abolished in Washington D.C., the Fugitive Slave Act was passed, and the territories of New Mexico and Utah were established on the basis of popular sovereignty, which would allow the people in the territory to decide if the territory should be slave or free. Acts & Laws 1850-1890 Act / Law Date Identification Kansas-Nebraska Act 1854 Turned lands west of Missouri and Iowa into the Kansas and Nebraska territories. The slavery issue in the new territories was to be decided by popular sovereignty. This overturned the Missouri Compromise. Homestead Act 1862 Declared that any head of a family who was a U.S. citizen could acquire 160 acres of land in new territories by paying a small registration fee and living on the land for 5 years. Pacific Railway Act 1862 Authorized land subsidies and money subsidies for the construction of a transcontinental railroad. Morill Land Grant Act 1862 Provided states 30,000 acres for each member of Congress. The land was to be used to support state mechanical and agricultural colleges. Wade-Davis Bill 1864 Said that a majority of those who had been alive to vote in 1860 would have to swear an "ironclad" oath that they were loyal to the federal government, and had never been disloyal. Lincoln vetoed the bill. Timber & Stone Act 1878 Allowed any person to acquire forest at $2.50 an acre if the land was "unfit for cultivation." Bland Allison Act 1878 Authorized the Treasury Department to purchase $2 to $4 million worth of silver bullion per month to coin silver. Pendleton Act 1883 Provided the President a way to determine the fitness of applicants for office by way of a competitive exam. Interstate Commerce Act 1887 Provided for the creation of a commission to oversee rates on railways, end discriminatory practices, and require annual reports and financial statements. Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890 Made to prevent corporations from engaging in monopolistic practices that were seen as "combination in restraint of trade." Used to shut down several businesses. Found unconstitutional in the case of E.C. Knight vs. United States. Sherman Silver Purchase Act 1890 Silver interests passed legislation authorizing Congress to buy 4.5 million ounces of silver each month at market price and issue treasury notes redeemable in gold and silver. This act was repealed in 1893. McKinley Tariff 1890 This protective tariff promised by the Republicans in 1888 extended to industrial and agricultural goods. The act also included reciprocal trade provisions that allowed the President to retaliate against nations that discriminated against U.S. products and reward countries that opened their markets to American goods. Foreign Policy 1763-1820 Foreign Policy Date Identification Treaty of Paris 1763 Ended French & Indian War. Ceded all French lands in North America to Britain. Britain was now in control of everything east of the Mississippi. Treaty of Paris 1783 Ended the Revolutionary War in America. The United States was recognized as an independent nation. Territorial boundaries were set at the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and Spanish Florida. Florida was given back to Spain. Jay’s Treaty 1794 A negotiated treaty with the British that attempted to settle conflict at sea and curtail English involvement in Indian attacks. Britain agreed to evacuate posts on the U.S. western frontier, but nothing firm was determined about British seizures of U.S. merchant ships. An unpopular treaty. Pinckney Treaty 1795 The Spanish opened the Mississippi River to American traffic, including the right of deposit at the port city of New Orleans. Florida's northern boundary at 31 was established. Washington's Farewell Address 1796 Washington warned the new nation to avoid "inveterate antipathies" and "passionate attachments" to any foreign nation. Said that permanent alliances should be avoided, although temporary alliances were OK. Warned against the use of political parties. Louisiana Purchase 1803 The Louisiana Territory was purchased from France for $15,000,000. The original goal was just to secure the port of New Orleans. Jefferson viewed the purchase as unconstitutional, but did it anyway. Embargo Act 1807 Jefferson forbade any American ship to leave port for any foreign nation. Hoped that British trade would be hurt so they would stop violating the neutral rights of the U.S. The act backfired and resulted in a brief economic depression. Non-Intercourse Act 1808 Modified the Embargo Act. Forbid trade only with Britain and France. Macon's Bill 1810 Opened trade with all nations once again. Provided that if either Britain or France would formally agree to respect the neutral rights of the U.S., the U.S. would embargo trade with that nation’s foe. Napoleon accepted this offer, but never upheld his end of the agreement. Treaty of Ghent 1814 Ended the War of 1812. Signed before the Battle of New Orleans. Territories were restored to their pre-war boundaries. Rush-Bagot Agreement 1817 First "disarmament" agreement. The United States and Britain agreed not to maintain an armed fleet in the Great Lakes. Treaty of 1818 1818 British-U.S. border fixed along 49 from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. Oregon would be held jointly by the two nations for 10 years. Adams-Onis Treaty 1819 Spain ceded Florida and gave up all claims to Oregon. In return, the U.S. gave up claims to Texas and assumed $5,000,000 worth of civilian claims against Spain. The western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase was formalized. Foreign Policy 1820-1867 Foreign Policy Date Identification Monroe Doctrine 1823 Proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize the Americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the Americas. In return, the United States planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers. Webster-Ashburton Treaty 1842 Conflicting claims over the Canada-Maine boundary were resolved. Oregon Treaty 1846 Boundary with Canada extended from Rockies to the Pacific along 49 (extending the line established by the Treaty of 1818). The cry for “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight” was abandoned. Wilmot Proviso 1846 A bill was passed that provided $2 million for President Polk to settle boundary disputes with Mexico. Wilmot added an amendment to the bill stating that any land acquired from Mexico in the Mexican War should be free of slavery. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo 1848 Ended Mexican War. Mexican Cession included California, New Mexico, and Utah Territories. U.S. paid Mexico $15 million for the land and assumed Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens to the tune of $3.25 million. The Rio Grande was recognized as southern border of Texas. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 1850 U.S. and Britain agreed that neither would attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal route in Central America. Voided in 1901. Gadsden Purchase 1853 Purchased sections of present-day new Mexico and Arizona from Mexico for $10 million. The goal was to establish a cheaper route for a transcontinental railroad. This completed acquisitions on the U.S. mainland. Ostend Manifesto 1854 Pierce sought to buy Cuba from Spain. A secret document revealed plans to take Cuba from Spain if Spain refused to sell. It caused so much public embarrassment that the issue was dropped. Emperor Maximilian Incident 1867 French troops established Maximilian as a puppet Mexican Emperor. In response to U.S. protests over this violation of the Monroe Doctrine, the French withdrew support and Maximilian was executed. Alaskan Purchase 1867 Russia was paid $7.2 million for “Seward’s Folly.” Foreign Policy 1867-1922 Foreign Policy Date Identification New Manifest Destiny Late 1800s America was overcome with the idea of imperialism, in which it was seen as America's duty to rule the hemisphere. Hawaii and the Philippines were the first victims. Pan-American Conference 1889 Established an International Bureau, later called the Pan-American Union, to promote cultural and commercial exchange between nations in Western Hemisphere. Teller Amendment 1898 Sponsored by Republican senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado, this statement denied any intention to exercise control over Cuba and pledged that the government of the island would be left to its inhabitants as soon as peace had been restored there. Treaty of Paris 1899 Secured independence for Cuba from Spain and ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. Ended the Spanish-American War. Open Door Policy 1899 Guaranteed equal opportunity of trade and the sovereignty of the Chinese government. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 1901 The U.S. and Britain voided the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. The U.S. was free to construct, maintain, an fortify a canal across the isthmus of Central America as long as it was open to all ships. Platt Amendment 1901 The U.S. made Cuba a protectorate. Cuba could not make a treaty with a foreign nation. Cuba was to allow the United States to issue orders and lease a base at Guantanamo Bay for 99 years. Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty 1903 Phillipe Bunau-Varilla, a former engineer with the French Panama Canal Company and Panamanian minister to the United States, negotiated a treaty in which the U.S. paid Panama $10 million up front and an annual fee of $250,000 in exchange for rights to a zone five miles wide on either side of the Panama Canal route. Roosevelt Corollary 1904 The U.S. reserved the right to intervene in Latin America affairs, presumably to keep European powers from collecting debts by force. Taft-Katsura Agreement 1905 Japan promised that it had no interest in the Philippines, and the United States agreed to approve of Japanese domination of Korea. Big Stick Diplomacy 1905 America became involved in the affairs of Venezuela, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Cuba. The U.S. brandished a "big stick" like a policeman to beat Europeans out of Latin America. Dollar Diplomacy 1914 The concept that economic penetration would bring stability to other nations, as well as profit and power to the United States, without having to use troops or special funds. Treaty of Versailles 1919 President Woodrow Wilson introduced his "Fourteen Points" for world security, but only one, the League of Nations, was approved. Failed to pass the U.S. Senate. Five-Power Treaty 1922 This naval limitation treaty, signed by the U.S., Great Britain, Japan, France, and Italy, set a ship ratio for the countries involved and called for the scrapping of 1,900,000 tons of warships. Foreign Policy 1922-1945 Foreign Policy Date Identification Dawes Plan 1924 Agreement made regarding German WWI reparations payments. Involved extensive loans to Germany. It softened the burden of reparations and stabilized German currency, but made the German economy dependant on foreign markets. Clark Memorandum 1928 Stated that America would not intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries. A repudiation of the Roosevelt Corollary. Kellog-Briand Pact 1928 First proposed as a treaty between France and United States. Invited all nations to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. Outlawed aggression, not self-defense. Few signed the agreement. Young Plan 1929 Scaled down the German reparations bill when it became clear that the Dawes Plan was not sustainable. London Naval Conference 1930 The U.S., Great Britain, and Japan agreed on a fixed number of cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. Stimson Doctrine 1931 Said that America would not recognize any agreement that hurt the integrity of China and the Open Door Policy. Good Neighbor Policy 1930s Policy to avoid foreign entanglements while still advancing American economic interests. Essentially, America would play the good neighbor by heeding the complaints of Latin American nations. U.S.S.R. Recognition 1933 Formal recognition was finally given to the Soviet Union. Neutrality Acts 1935-1937 1935: In the outbreak of war, all exports of American arms and munitions would be restricted for six months. 1936: Gave the President the authority to determine when a state of war existed, and prohibited any loans or credits to belligerents. 1937: Prohibited all arms sales to belligerents and established cash-and-carry rules for non-military goods. Panay Affair 1937 Japanese planes bombed the American gunboat Panay. The matter was resolved after a formal apology was issued by the Japanese. Cash and Carry 1939 Revised the Neutrality Acts so that a belligerent could buy U.S. arms under cash-and-carry terms. Technically neutral, but favored Britain. Destroyers for Bases 1940 Gave Britain 50 destroyers in return for a 99-year lease on air and naval bases in British Territories. Lend-Lease Act 1941 Authorized the President to sell, lend, lease, transfer, or exchange arms and supplies to any nation needing American help to defend itself. Atlantic Charter 1941 Described a postwar world based on self-determination for all nations. Casablanca Conference 1943 FDR and Winston Churchill agreed that WWII would continue until the "unconditional" surrender of the Axis nations was obtained. Dunbarton Oaks Conference 1944 The U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union, and China met to discuss an international association (United Nations) after World War II. Yalta Conference 1945 The U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and China would be permanent members of the future United Nations Security Council. Germany was divided into occupational zones and a coalition government was agreed upon for Poland. Potsdam Conference 1945 Truman ordered the dropping of the atomic bomb on Japan. Established a Council of Foreign Ministers to draft peace treaties for the Balkans. Foreign Policy 1945-1990 Foreign Policy Date Identification United Nations 1945 Created a General Assembly composed of all member nations which would act as the ultimate worldwide policy-making body. A Security Council of 11 members was created. Permanent members given veto powers. Cold War 1950-1990 The name given to heated relations between the United States and the Soviet Union after WWII. Several confrontations occurred, including the blockade of Berlin, Korean War, Cuban Missile Crisis, and Vietnam War. Containment 1946-1947 Soviet expert George F. Kennan wrote an article in which he called for counter-measures to "contain" the spread of Communism. Truman Doctrine 1947 Said that it is the responsibility of the United States to support free peoples resisting Communist domination. Marshall Plan 1947 An recovery program designed to rebuild Europe's economy after World War II. It was also called the European Recovery Program. NATO 1949 Short for North Atlantic Treaty Organization. All signatories pledged that an attack against one would be against all of them. The Warsaw Pact was formed by the Soviets to oppose NATO. OAS 1948 Short for Organization of American States. Created following a mutual defense pact with Latin America. Decisions were reached by a 2/3 vote with no special weight given to the United States. SEATO 1954 An attempt by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles to organize a group of Southeast Asian countries to parallel NATO. It failed due to lack of interest. Geneva Accords 1955 France, Britain, the Soviet Union, and China signed this agreement dividing Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Peaceful Coexistence 1955 Khrushchev’s response to the Eisenhower-Dulles policy of massive retaliation. Eisenhower Doctrine 1957 Announced that the U.S. was prepared to use force in the Middle East to preserve democracy. U.S. Marines entered Lebanon to ease the change in governments. Alliance for Progress 1961 Kennedy provided $20 million of aid to Latin America. Domino Theory 1964 Said that if one country falls to Communism then other countries will fall and Communism will rule the world. Vietnam was the first domino. Gulf Of Tonkin Resolution 1964 An alleged attack on an American boat in the Gulf of Tonkin caused President Johnson to ask for authorization to "repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." Detente 1972 Defined as a relaxation in the tensions between two governments. This policy sought to establish set rules to govern the rivalry between the United States, China, and the Soviet Union. SALT Talks 1972-1979 SALT I signatories agreed to stop making nuclear ballistic missiles. SALT II set a ceiling of 2,250 bombers and missiles for Americans and Soviets, placed limits on warheads, and established new weapons systems. Desert Storm 1990 In the Persian Gulf War, America launched Operation Desert Storm to stop Saddam Hussein and Iraq from monopolizing the world's oil industry by annexing Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Tariff Chart Year Name Description 1789 Tariff of 1789 Mainly for revenue; some protection for "infant industries" (Washington). 1816 Tariff of 1816 First protective tariff; Clay and Calhoun supported it as part of the American System; Southern cotton growers opposed it (Madison). 1824 Tariff of 1824 Raised tariff rates; opposition from South grew (Monroe). 1828 Tariff of Abominations Protective measures for New England mills; Southerners outraged (Adams). 1832 Tariff of 1832 Moderate reform returned rates to 1824 levels; South Carolina was unmoved and started Nullification Crisis (Jackson). 1833 Tariff of 1833 Clay compromise; gradual reduction of rates over time to 1816 levels; New England states opposed it (Jackson). 1842 Tariff of 1842 Tariffs raised following the Panic of 1837 (Tyler). 1846 Walker Tariff West supported tariff reduction in hope of selling grain abroad (Polk). 1857 Tariff of 1857 Tariff lowered to almost free-trade status; North opposed it (Buchanan). 1861-1865 Wartime Tariff Acts Increased protectionism to fund Union war costs (Buchanan/Lincoln). 1872 Tariff of 1872 Reduced rates on some manufactured goods (Grant). 1875 Tariff of 1875 Average rates reduced by 10 percent (Grant). 1883 Mongrel Tariff Republicans abandoned reform; compromise satisfied no one (Arthur). 1890 McKinley Tariff Highest protective tariff to date; averaged 48 percent (Harrison). 1894 Wilson-Gorman Act Reform measure crippled by Senate amendments (Cleveland). 1897 Dingley Tariff Blatantly protective measure; some rates set at 57 percent (McKinley). 1909 Payne-Aldrich Tariff Attempted to lower duties; little effect; Progressives angered (Taft). 1913 Underwood-Simmons Tariff General duty reduction was soon negated by outbreak of WWI; federal income tax provision made (Wilson). 1921 Emergency Tariff Republican response to mini-depression; raised agricultural rates to protect farmers; only a stopgap measure (Harding). 1922 Fordney-McCumber Tariff Increased rates sharply; President empowered to adjust rates; Tariff Commission created to advise the President (Harding). 1930 Hawley-Smoot Tariff Raised U.S. duties to an all-time high; foreign retaliation (Hoover). 1934 Hull Trade Pacts Reciprocal treaties to reduce tariffs and stimulate trade (FDR). 1948 GATT United Nations organization created to seek tariff reductions (Truman). 1962 Trade Expansion Act President received authority to negotiate tariff reductions up to 50%; aimed primarily at EEC (Kennedy). 1963-1967 Kennedy Round GATT talks for a 33% tariff reduction with Western Europe (Johnson). 1973-1979 Tokyo Round GATT talks regarding non-tariff trade barriers; included non-GATT members (Nixon). 1974 Trade Act of 1974 President allowed to end tariffs aimed at developing nations (Ford). 1993 NAFTA U.S., Canada, and Mexico removed most trade barriers (Clinton). 1994 WTO New GATT agreement; World Trade Organization formed (Clinton).