Chapter 5 - Buddhism, Barbarians, and the Tang Dynasty

CHAPTER 5 Buddhism, Barbarians, and the Tang Dynasty CHAPTER OUTLINE End of the Han Increasing disorder from second century CE. By formal end of the dynasty in 220 CE, the country was fragmented. Shu, Wu, and Wei kingdoms Zhuge Liang (181-234), a Shu statesman, has given rise to many stories, including the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Buddhism Buddhism travels from India through Central Asia and arrives in China during the 1st and 2nd c. CE. While it was adopted slowly into the Chinese way of life, it appealed to people seeking order during the period of the rivaling Three Kingdoms. Its doctrine of another, more orderly world was appealing. Buddhism developed out of the growing rigidity of Indian Hinduism. Buddhism called for greater equality among individuals. It borrowed important aspects of Hindu belief such as dharma (duty), karma (consequences of one’s actions), samsara (reincarnation), and moksha (nirvana). Gautama Buddha (c. 563 – c. 480 BCE) The founder of Buddhism was born Prince Gautama (family name) Siddartha (given name) near Nepal in 563 BCE, and died between 485 and 480 BCE. Not much is known about his actual life. He appears to have led the worldly life of a prince until the age of 29 when he started wandering and teaching. According to one story, Prince Siddartha was discontented and wandered away from his walled palace one day. He encountered a sick man, a corpse, and a sadhu (holy man). Overwhelmed by the images of suffering and the contrast of the holy man’s appearance of inner joy, Siddartha left his palace, abandoned his family, and became a wandering beggar. He wandered for several years and one day he decided to seek the answer to suffering through meditation. He meditated under a tree for 49 days before attaining enlightenment and transforming into the Buddha. Shortly afterwards, he gave his first sermon and proposed the Four Noble Truths, the basis of the new religion. Life is filled with pain, sorrow, frustration, impermanence, and dissatisfaction. Desire, attachment, wanting, and the urge to exist lead to suffering. Suppressing desire can put an end to suffering by changing oneself. Desirelessness can be obtained by following the eightfold path of “right conduct”. The Buddha’s teachings were recorded in the Tripitaka Followers might attain Nirvana; others would be reborn to achieve “right conduct” Buddhism remained nothing more than a minority religion in China until the conversion of Emperor Ashoka (269-232 BCE). The distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism has become blurry. The popularity of Buddhism peaked in India in 100 CE, and then declined. Theravada, Mahayana, and the Spread of Buddhism Buddhism split into two major schools of thought and practice: Theravada or Hinayana, and Mahayana. Hinayana (“the lesser vehicle”) Emphasizes doing good works in order to receive “merit” and became predominant in Southeast Asia and Vietnam. Closer to original ideas. Mahayana (“the greater vehicle”) developed later, around 100 and 200 CE, and was adopted in China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan. Several important developments occur under the Mahayana school. The Buddha became a supernatural god. Bodhisattvas, comparable to saints, delayed their entrance into nirvana and remained on earth to help others. They became the chief divinities. Ideas of heaven and hell emerged. The changes made to Buddhism under the Mahayana school, particularly relic worship, and its rising popularity led to important developments in the arts: painting; sculpture; and the construction of temples, including the pagoda form. Developments in Mahayana had little to do with the Buddha’s original teachings. It related Buddhism to the needs of everyday life and its people. A layer of magic was added in some forms of Mayahana Buddhism. Demons countered the bodhisattvas. The popularization of Buddhism led to a flowering in the arts. The pagoda, a trans-formation of the Indian dagoba, was just one of many forms of temple that appeared. Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant form in India, and thence spread across the Himalayas into Central Asia. It slowly came into China and spread outwards to Korea and then Japan. During the period of fragmentation following the Han and Sui, Buddhism became popular in China. Rulers at that time also sought political value in supporting it and constructing monuments celebrating it. Tang rulers, on the contrary, reduced Buddhism to a minority religion from the ninth century. Buddhism in Japan retained its importance, though the modern country is largely secular. The Buddhism of Vietnam came directly from India, and is best described as Theravada. Though there was no suppression of Buddhism in Korea, the country eventually was dominated by Confucianism. The End of the Han Final Years A series of weak emperors led to the growing power of landowners and corrupt court officials. Landowners escaped paying taxes, burdening the peasantry. This led to banditry, rebellions, and a peasant migration southward. At court, power increasingly came into the hands of eunuchs. They were considered trustworthy because they were castrated and could not produce heirs. Therefore, they lived within the inner palace and their administrative duties included attending to the emperor’s harem. The Confucian ministers were all restricted to the outer court giving eunuchs a political advantage. Culture Honoring ancestors remained important. Daoism throve in this period. During the slow adoption of Buddhism, it merged to a large extent with Daoism. Collapse “Barbarian” threats added to the instability of the government. In 316 the Xiongnu sacked the capital at Luoyang leaving the north in turmoil. Generals turned into warlords, as in the Warring States period. The Three Kingdoms period (220–290) Shu, Wei, and Wu Steppe peoples settle within the borders The period from 220-589 is called the Six Dynasties and is named after the six who successfully set up capitals in Nanjing. The name is somewhat misleading since the south was not wholly unified during this period and little headway was made into controlling the north. Northern Wei In 439 the Toba tribe of the Xianbei emerged victorious among the competing groups in the north. They unified most of north China under the dynastic title of Northern Wei. By the late 400s, they governed according to the pattern set by previous dynasties and adopted Chinese culture. Buddhism was promoted by the state, elaborate temples and sculptures were constructed, and pilgrimages to India seeking copies of sutras began. Pilgrimage accounts were a popular form of literature; most famous was Faxian. Contact via these pilgrimages brought greater contact with and information about India. Cultural Heavy immigration into the south continues as the wealthy begin to flee the north. Trade and towns suffered. Art and culture flourished in the South. Though political chaos reigned, the period was dynamic, largely spurred by the influx of new ideas from Central Asia, and by the arrival of Buddhism. The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove is an example of a kind of bohemianism that flourished in this age, free from Confucian dictates. As with later groups moving into China, the Northern Wei became deeply sinified, but also brought with them elements of their own culture. Contemplation of nature was once again emphasized in this period. For the first time, the names of poets are recorded, for example Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun. Similarly, in painting, we know the name of the painter Gu Kaizhi. Critical studies are responsible for passing on much of Han period literature. Reunification: Sui and Tang Sui Dynasty The Northern Wei split in 534. It reunified after the victory of the western half in 577. They called themselves the Northern Zhou. Yang Jian, a Zhou general of mixed Chinese and Xianbei descent, rose to power in 581 and found the Sui dynasty as Sui Wendi. In 589 he conquered the south, reunifying China. Yangdi (604-618) succeeded Sui Wendi. He reconquered northern Vietnam. He was less successful in the north, and was assassinated in 618. Massive public works were undertaken, requiring vast labor and increasing taxation. Rebellion resulted, under Li Yuan, who proclaimed the Tang dynasty in 618. Tang Dynasty (618-907) As the Han had built on Qin success, the Tang dynasty rested on the empire building of the Sui and a need to moderate its previously harsh governance. The Tang continued conquering territory and was successful in expanding the empire’s territory beyond that which was achieved under the Han dynasty. Northern Vietnam, Xinjiang, southern Manchuria and Korea were again under Chinese control. Tibet was briefly brought into the empire. Tang Taizong (born Li Shimin) became emperor in 626 after the abdication of his father. He was ethnically mixed and sought to make China a tolerant multi-ethnic society. He openly criticized previous rulers for labeling non-Han Chinese as “barbarians.” Restored order to Silk Road Able administrator: oversaw completion of legal code. Gaozong succeeded Taizong, but was ill for most of his reign. Empress Wu, Wu Zetian, was de facto ruler for much of her husband Emperor Gaozong’s reign and then for her sons after his death. In 690, she proclaimed herself the first Chinese Empress, head of the Zhou dynasty. She recruited new officials, many from lower orders, to oppose the old aristocracy. She supported and promoted Buddhism heavily, in part seeking validation for her political authority as a woman. A coup deposed her in 705, and Confucian scholars have historically criticized her rule, yet it appears to have been predominately successful and just. Xuanzong ruled from 712 until 756. His rule marks the highpoint of the Tang dynasty. China prospered. The legendary artist Wu Daozi worked in this period. While few paintings survive, pottery figures have survived in greater numbers. The emperor’s infatuation with Yang Guifei brought the latter to a position of great influence. The pair fled following a rebellion in 755. Yang was strangled and Xuanzong abdicated. After Xuanzong’s rule the Tang Dynasty slowly declined and eventually collapsed. The Tang Empire at its height exceeded all previous in scope and achievements. Like other dynasties, it began strongly but then faded. As with the Han, halfway through the Tang dynasty rebellion arose. An Lushan, a commander of Turkish descent, was brought to prominence by Yang Guifei. He led a revolt in 755. His son murdered he himslef in 757. The Tang dynasty was restored, though greatly weakened The Tang System Strengths of Tang Governance Military The aristocratic and steppe origins of the Tang aided to breeding of horses in public stud farms for use by the military. Raids on these farms in the 8th contribute to a weakening military and evidential collapse of the dynasty. Revenue System Taxes on land, salt, tea, and liquor. The system of large landholders avoiding taxation collapsed during the aftermath of the Han dynasty and the Tang reworked the system for taxing land, basing it on specific areas of land rather than on individuals. This system remained intact until the Communist era. Merit-based Bureaucracy Imperial Exams reinstated, further institutionalized, made more comprehensive. Government schools created. “Rule of Avoidance”: Officials not allowed to govern in their native district. Terms lasted 3 years and then moved onto different appointment elsewhere. Detailed law code and regulations put in place. Capitals Chang’an and Luoyang Linked by the Yellow River and canals. Qin and Han roads rebuilt, with post horses. This infrastructure hastened the sinicization of the south Southern expansion By the late Tang, most Chinese lived in the south. The construction of the Grand Canal under Sui Yangdi linked the north and south, increasing migration and later domestic trade between the north and south. After the fall of the Han, the subsequent troubles sent many fleeing south. It also led to the incorporation of Fujian into the Chinese empire. Fujian was an isolated mountainous region of southeast coastal China with its own language and culture. Previous to this period of migration, it had more interaction with Southeast Asia and Taiwan than with China proper. During the migration south it was settled by former Han subjects and their Han culture. Agricultural technologies from the north moved southwards with the migration. The new settlements along the southeast coast set the stage for the first major expansion of Chinese trade overseas and the rise of a merchant group. A new system of credit for the exchange of money developed, called flying money. The Zheng Guo Canal, built under the Qin, had badly silted. Erosion also contributed to declining productivity in the North These two factors led to the emergence of the south as China’s economic center. By the rise of the Tang Dynasty, it contributed at least half of the empire’s revenue. The move south also put pressure on earlier inhabitants. Many moved higher. Some were killed, others married with newcomers. Rapid growth of trade between North and South as well as with Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia developed. A Tang expedition was driven back near Samarkand in 751. Chinese inventions such as papermaking and movable type, the use of coal, iron casting and paper currency slowly moved west. Silk making and tea cultivation were coveted by the west, but long remained Chinese monopolies or near monopolies Chang’an in an Age of Imperial Splendor The City was well planned and provided a cultural model. The city was designed along the lines of the usual checkerboard pattern. It was surrounded by a wall flanked with gates at each of the cardinal directions. People lived both within and outside the walls. Broad avenues running north-south and east-west divided the city into major quarters that was further divided into administrative units. The emperor’s palace faced south, down a 500-foot-wide thoroughfare leading to the southern, main gate of the city. The government supervised East and West Markets within the city. Streets were full of people including street performers: theater players, acrobats, magicians, opera performers, skit players. B. Culture Painters and sculptors found subject matter in not only horses (the prized Tang creature), but also in the foreigners living within the city. Chang’an had a large (at least 2 million), multi-ethnic population. Its pattern was followed by other cities, including Nara, Japan and Koryo, Korea Its population of foreigners included Turks, Indians, Persians, Syrians, Vietnamese, Koreans, Japanese, Jews, Arabs, as well as Nestorian Christians and Byzantines. Tang is considered the greatest period of Chinese poetry and the works of Li Bo (701–762) and Du Fu (712-770) focused on human troubles as well as nature. C. Tang Administration Outside the Capital 1. Division into xian was reestablished, but the Han system of commanderies was abolished. 2. Prefectures, including several xian, were added. 3. Provinces, each with an imperial governor and a military commander, included several prefectures, and were added as well. D. Tang Administration Inside the Capital Three new institutions were established to divide the work of the government under the emperor. Imperial Secretariat (responsible for policy formulation) Imperial Chancellery (a review board) Department of State Affairs (carried out policy) – included six separate ministries: Revenue, Military, Public Works, Justice, Personnel, and Rites. Judge Dee (630-700) Famous for discovering criminals. Gave rise to many stories. E. Women under Tang 1 The influence of Buddhism combined with steppe culture led to increased social and political freedom for women during the period. Confucian tradition limited women to the domestic sphere, but there was no separation of public male and private female space in steppe culture. 2. During this time divorce frequently occurred, women played polo (a popular sport at the time), and took an active part in public and court activities. Buddhism in the Late Tang The early Tang ideal of an expansive, tolerant, multi-ethnic empire transformed into a conservative orthodox Confucian model. This included a reaction against and suppression of Buddhism. Reaction against cosmopolitanism of early Tang. Buddhism challenged Confucian orthodoxy. The state opposed the development and growth of wealthy Buddhist monasteries, which owned large tax-free landholdings, received large gifts from the pious, and in some cases operated like banks, including money lending. Between 841 and 845, the state confiscated and destroyed most of the monasteries, temples, and their land. Buddhism’s popularity never recovered and it became a minority religion, often fusing with Daoism, and remained alive in folk religion. Earlier temples at Yungang and Longmen. Dunhuang Cave complex decorated with wall paintings, large Buddhist library. Sealed from eleventh to twentieth century. Indian Buddhist scholars traveled to China and lived within the cosmopolitan capitals. Kumariajiva supervised the work of translating texts concerning Buddhism as well as Indian astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and medicine. Xuanzang’s journey to obtain Buddhist sutras is recorded in Wu Cheng’en’s Journey to the West. Buddhism inspired both literature and painting. Statues of the Buddha, now as a rotund, jolly figure, abounded. Islam probably reached the shores of China by the eighth century through interactions with merchant traders. In the Tang era, the tradition of gazetteers compiling local history began. Buddhist Sects By the mid-Tang period, Buddhism had developed into eight or nine different sects. Most had short life-spans, partially due to Tang suppression, but four became dominant over a period of time and spread into Japan. The Tang suppressed one sect, Sanjie because it represented the Tang as a period of decay. The Mi sect, patronized by Xuanzong, was mystic, centered on mantras. It fell out of favor after Xuanzong, but was very popular in Japan as Shingon. Tiantai (Japanese: Tendai) Promoted the supremacy of the Buddhist text called the Lotus Sutra. Formed the basis for the common artistic representation of the Buddha sitting on a lotus with his hands in various mudras (hand gestures) All things contain the truth. Huayan (Japanese: Kegon) Focused on “the doctrine of emptiness” and “reciprocal causation”. Interdependence of all things Jingtu (Japanese: Jodo) Known as the Pure Land sect Stressed faith as the path to Nirvana. Popularized worship of Amitabha (Chinese: Amituofo; Japanese: Amida), the Buddha of Infinite Light. Merged with folk magic. Chan (Japanese: Zen) Centered on meditation. Influenced by Daoism. Decline and Collapse Imperial land grants resulted in the powerful and wealthy avoiding taxation. This increased the tax burden on the peasantry, leading to banditry and rebellion. Population growth led to a shortage in available food despite increased and improved cultivation. Landholdings, incomes, and subsistence levels fell. An increase in the appointment of sons of officials without previously passing the imperial exams contributed to ineffectual governance. Signs of decline by the late 700s Corvée labor and army service no longer enforced. Armies were made up primarily of hired mercenaries. This drained the state’s income and posed threats based on lack of loyalty. Led to provincialism. Rebellion, civil war, and failure to defend its frontier borders led to further collapse of the Tang System. Contending generals and warlords fought for supremacy during the fifty year period following the collapse of the Tang dynasty referred to as the Ten Kingdoms in southern China and the Five Dynasties in north China. Chang’an was captured and devastated, especially by Huang Chao in 881. The city was retaken in 883. The puppet emperors moved to Luoyang. Korea, central Asia and Vietnam fell from Chinese control. Southern China in this period was called the Ten Kingdoms. In the north regional commanders dominated, one after another, in the Five Dynasties. Steppe groups took advantage of China’s weakness. The Khitan (Qidan) took northern prefectures, including the future Beijing, forming the realm of Liao (947-1125) In 960, general Zhao Kuangyin, took over the throne in the north and founded the Song dynasty. ESSAY QUESTIONS In what manner, and with what changes was Buddhism adopted in China? India and reaction to Hinduism; Gautama Buddha and the Four Noble Truths; Theravada and Mahayana; Tiantai, Huayan, Qing’tu, and Chan Theravada (Hinayana) in Vietnam via Southeast Asia; Mahayana travels to China through central Asia and spreads to Korea, and Japan Becomes popular answer to chaos of period in-between Han and Tang dynasties: Ashoka, Northern Wei (Rulers of “barbarian” descent and freedom from Confucian restraints), and Empress Wu (role of women limited under Confucius) Buddhist backlash under Tang Dynasty including confiscations (Return to Confucian vision, reaction against “non-Chinese” people, and opposition to increased power and wealth of Buddhist monasteries) What were the strengths of Tang governance? Why did the dynasty collapse despite these important developments that had initially led to its prosperity? Land tax reform; Imperial exam system refined; Government schools initiated; “Rule of Avoidence;” Board of Censors reinstated; New system of dividing empire (xian, prefectures, provinces); New institutions of Imperial Secretariat, Imperial Chancellery, and Department of State Affairs. Suppression of and discrimination against Non-Confucianism and Non-Han Chinese; corruption: officials appointed w/out passing exam, eunuchs, and generals; collapse of revenue system: imperial land grants, population pressure; non-enforcement of corvée labor and military service; and use of hired mercenaries for soldiers drains resources; rebellion, civil war, and “barbarian” attacks MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Buddhism originated from a. Southeast Asia. b. Mongolia. c. India. d. Persia. 2. Before his religious awakening, Siddartha Gautama was a a. peasant. b. merchant. c. priest. d. prince. 3. The Theravada school of Buddhism is associated primarily with a. performing good works for increased “merit”. b. the development of Bodhisattvas. c. its popularity in China. d. meditation. 4. Which of the following is NOT associated with the Mahayana school of Buddhism? a. heaven and hell b. the title “the greater vehicle” c. the development of Bodhisattvas d. reliance on good works 5. Which of the following experienced resurgence in the late Han? a. Daoism b. Confucianism c. Mahayana Buddhism d. Theravada Buddhism 6. Which of the following was NOT one of the Three Kingdoms that followed the Han? a. Shu b. Wei c. Wu d. Liao 7. The period following the collapse of the Han, lasting three centuries is known as the a. Three Kingdoms. b. Six Dynasties. c. Ten Kingdoms. d. Eastern Han. 8. The Northern Wei was the first in a series of steppe conquerors that a. imposed their customs on their Chinese subjects. b. abandoned their culture for Chinese customs. c. withdrew to their homeland after centuries of rule. d. merged their culture with Chinese traditions. 9. The Sui dynasty is best known for a. reunifying China after the collapse of the Han dynasty. b. collapsing due to its tolerant and lenient government. c. reinstating Han-Chinese control of China’s government. d. maintaining its power for over two centuries. 10. Empress Wu ruled under which dynasty? a. Northern Wei b. Sui c. Tang d. Song 11. Wu Daozi is best known for his a. poetry. b. military genius. c. administrative skill. d. paintings. 12. The Tang accorded a special place to a. pigs. b. water buffalo. c. horses. d. tigers. 13. Which best describes the Tang capital of Chang’an? a. It was a multi-ethnic city. b. It was planned with the construction of very narrow streets and alleys. c. It was reserved for the emperor, imperial family, and servants. d. It was limited to the business of government administration. 14. Which of the following was not used as an administrative tool by the Tang dynasty? a. Commanderies b. Prefectures c. Provinces d. Xian 15. Which government is best known for suppressing Buddhism? a. Han dynasty b. Northern Wei c. Sui dynasty d. Tang dynasty ANSWER SECTION 1. C (p.75) 2. D (p.75) 3. A (p.77) 4. D (p.76–77) 5. A (p.79) 6. D (p.79) 7. B (p.80) 8. D (p.80) 9. A (p.81) 10. C (p.82) 11. D (p.82) 12. C (p.84) 13. A (p.89) 14. A (p.91) 15. D (p.93)