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Methods Midterm Exam Study Guide

Uploaded: 4 years ago
Contributor: bio_man
Category: Health, Nutrition, and Food Sciences
Type: Lecture Notes
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Filename:   docx - 2019-06-15T001109.532.docx (111.6 kB)
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Methods Midterm Exam Study Guide Ch. 1: Theory in Health Education Quiz Questions A theory is a general explanation of: Answer: Why people act or do not act to maintain or promote their own health. True or False: Theory and ethics are two essential ingredients for determining health education methods and how to maintain integrity in practicing health education. Answer: True True or False: The current Healthy People 2020 includes the goal of reducing and/or eliminating health disparities. Answer: True True or False: We all have personal biases that we naturally bring to our interactions with others. Answer: True True or False: Diffusion of innovation Theory is considered only a community-level theory. Answer: True Theories can be classified in two groups, depending on their focus. Some theories focus on individuals as the unit of change, others focus on organizations and cultures. Theories that focus on the individual, known as cognitive –behavioral models, are based on two premises: Behavior is determined by cognition, or what we know, which in turn, results in how we act. Behavior is determined by perceptions, levels of motivation, self efficacy, skills, resiliency, and environmental variables. Community models are designed to support healthy lifestyles by reducing or eliminating hazards in social and physical environments. These models center on community- level change, including community organization, theories of organizational change, and diffusion of innovation, and are important in planning comprehensive community based programs. FIVE COMMONLY USED THEORIES: The Health Belief Model: Emphasizes the “role of perceptions vulnerability to an illness and the potential effectiveness of treatment” Based on the belief that health related behavior is determined by whether individuals: Perceive themselves to be susceptible to a health problem See this problem as serious Are convinced they will benefit from treatment or prevention activities Recognize the need to take action and any barriers that would interfere with this action. Answer these four questions: Do I perceive I am susceptible? Is the susceptibility serious? Do the benefits in taking action overcome the cost in money and effort? Are services available to help? Theory of Planned Behavior: Based on the assumption that behavior, or the intention to behave in a certain way, is determined by the person’s attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. If a person perceives that a given outcome will be a positive experience, that is positively viewed by others, and that is not difficult to perform, that person is more likely to exhibit the behavior The key to this theory is the concept of reasoned action. A person needs to reason, or think logically, about an intended behavior. Transtheoretical Stages of Change Model: Based on the assumption that behavior change is a process and that individuals are at varying levels of motivation or readiness to change. The model identifies five stages of readiness that could be applied to any type of behavior change: Precontemplation: not interested in changing behavior. Contemplation: considering changing behavior someday (considering but not yet ready to do so) Preparation: preparing for and experimenting with behavior change but lacking self efficacy to actively engage in the prices. (intend to stop/start the behavior in the next month) Action: actively engaging in the behavior change process. Maintenance: sustaining behavior change over time (without relapse) Social Cognitive Theory: One of the most popular theories Basic premise is that people not only learn through their own experiences, but also by observing the actions of others and the results of those actions. Six concepts are essential to Social Cognitive Theory: Reciprocal Determinism: means that behavior changes are determined from interactions between a person and his or her environment. Behavioral Capability: based on the person’s capability to change a behavior by having the knowledge and skills to enact a desired behavior. Expectations: what a person expects as a result of modifying behavior – in other words, what he or she thinks the payoff will be. This is often referred to as the positive value of the desired behavior. Reinforcement: is the response to a person’s behavior that will increase the continuance of the behavior. Positive reinforcement. Self efficacy: means believing that one has the ability to take action and persist in one’s pursuits. Observational Learning: is the ability to learn by observing others. As a result, a person can see success and failure, and the positive and negative effects of these results. Diffusion of Innovation Theory: Provides a process for disseminating and implementing programs. The only theory in this chapter considered a solely community-level theory. Integrating innovative ideas, products, and programs that have proved to be successful in health education initiatives. Diffusion of Innovation Theory establishes criteria for selecting innovations: Relative Advantage: the degree to which an innovation is seen as better than the idea, practice, program, or product that it replaces. Compatibility: how consistent the innovation is with the values, habits, experiences, and needs of potential adopters. Complexity: how difficult the innovation is to understand or use. Treatability: the extent to which the innovation can be experimented with before a commitment to adopt is required. Observability: the extent to which the innovation provides tangible or visible results. ETHICS IN HEALTH EDUCATION: The body of ethics typically centers around four (plus a bonus) principles: Personal Freedom or Autonomy: one should respect people’s rights People have the right to choose and act. Sometimes freedom is overridden to avoid harm, this is called paternalism. Avoiding harm or Nonmalificence: one should not inflict harm on others. Doing good or Beneficence: one should help others, or at the least remove harm. Justice: one should treat others equally and fairly. Professional Accountability: being accountable to self, clients, participants, employer, profession, and society. Character: based on personal traits such as loyalty, kindness, integrity, self-esteem, self efficacy, and discipline. Key Terms: Action: stage of readiness to change in which an individual is actively engaging in behavioral change. Early adopters: individuals who are interested in adopting the innovation but do not want to be the first to do so. Early majority adopters: individuals who accept innovations once others they respect have done so. Ethics: a system of moral principles or values that governs the conduct of the members of a profession. Innovators: the first to adopt an innovation. Laggards: the last individuals to adopt an innovation, if they adopt it at all. Late majority adopters: individuals who are skeptical and late to adopt an innovation. Theory: knowledge, assumptions, or a set of rules or principles for the study or practive of a discipline. Ch. 2: Promoting Health Education in a Multicultural Society Quiz Questions True or False: Cultural Awareness is a characteristic of individuals who hold academic and interpersonal skills which allows an increased understanding and appreciation of another group’s differences and similarities. Answer: False Similar ideas, belief, values, and perceptions among people of a particular group is defined as ______. Answer: Culture Multiculturalism includes: Answer: Recognition that all members of society have contributions, Recognition of racial and cultural diversity, and respect for beliefs and culture of others. Diversity includes the following: Answer: Culture, Health Status, Age, Gender. True or False: When overcoming challenges to becoming multiculturally competent, adhering to the code of ethics for health education profession is a methods to reduce personal barriers. Answer: True Diversity refers to divergence among people, rooted in age, culture, health status and condition, ethnicity, experience, gender, sexual orientation, and various combinations of these traits. Cultural Awareness is the consciousness of cultural similarities and differences. Cultural Sensitivity is the ability to apply the understanding that stems from knowledge in different settings and situations to ensure or facilitate a useful interaction for all [arties concerned. Cultural Competence characteristics of those individuals who hold academic and interpersonal skills which allow an increased understanding and appreciation of another group’s differences and similarities. Multiculturalism recognition of racial and cultural diversity, respect for beliefs and cultures of others, and a recognition that all members of a society have contributions to make for it’s betterment. Multicultural Education refers to the process of gaining an enhanced knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of constructive interactions among people of differing cultural backgrounds. BEING CULTURALLY COMPETENT IN HEALTH EDUCATION Heighten Personal Awareness: become familiar with personal biases so that they do not disrupt services and education provided in cross-cultural or transcultural settings. Health educators must learn to separate their personal biases form their professional interactions. Health educators can learn most about other cultures when they immerse themselves in them. (i.e. attending cultural events, participating in workshops/lectures, being involved in community activities, and reading material that pertains to that cultural group). Establishing personal relationships can also be a beneficial way to learn about other cultures. The relationship will encourage free discussion and provide opportunities to learn and listen from other points of view. Transfer Personal Knowledge into Professional Setting: knowledge as a result of identifying personal biases and learning about other cultures should be transferred to the work/professional setting. Strategies to help ensure knowledge is incorporated into professional practice and workplace interactions: Determine whether current expertise addresses both regional and world wide diversity and responsibility for human and international interactions. Determine whether programs enhance people’s skills and knowledge about the diverse world around them so that people better understand themselves and the values of other cultures. Determine whether materials, curricula, services, and resources benefit all focus populations. Materials should reflect gender, racial, and other cultural differences. (i.e. gender neutral language) Determine whether an action plan has been developed relating to special information for underserved populations, such as migrant farm workers, immigrants, homeless persons, and people with differing sexual orientations. Determine whether plans incorporating Healthy People 2010 into programming have also included the needs of diverse populations. Tailor an evaluation mechanism to suit the needs of a particular organization that measures the extent to which the health education workplace is meeting it’s responsibilities of responding to the diversity of it’s clientele, with input from the population or populations being served. Create an Inclusive Environment: creating an educational environment inclusive of the diversity among participants can be one of the greatest challenges in health education programming. In doing so, several areas of concern should be addresses: The use of language and verbiage Understanding the focus population culture Discussion guidelines Facilitation skills Use of materials Teaching techniques and learning styles Language is one of the most important methods for communicating, yet can be the hardest to change for inclusiveness. Tailor materials to be gender neutral and reading level appropriate for the target audience. CHARACTERISTICS OF A MULTICULTURALLY COMPETENT HEALTH EDUCATOR: Acquires knowledge about individuals and groups of people different than oneself Participates in cultural events Empathizes with humankind Competent in process and content areas of health education Facilitates discussion about the importance of culture among varying individuals and groups Provides a safe environment for exploring the meaning of culture Provides an inclusive environment Speaks in gender neutral language Promotes not only tolerance, but acceptance Strives to reduce health disparities Empowers diverse populations to help themselves Models the importance of diversity in personal and professional settings Includes cultural considerations in all programming and activities Key Terms: Culture: similar ideas, beliefs, values, and perceptions among people of a particular group. Disparity: the vast differences that exist between populations in terms of access to services, morbidity, and mortality statistics, availability of resources, and the like. Majority: the group that holds the power in a population. This may or may not mean they have the greatest number of individuals in the community. Minority: a government invented word used to categorize people. The term is often seen as inferring “lesser than” or someone inferior; therefore, it’s use is on the decline. Underserved: populations that do not have the same amount of services, resources, and so forth needed to deal with individual and community health issues compared with other populations. Ch. 4: Health Communication Quiz Questions: Which of the following is NOT one of the four P’s of marketing outlined in step 3 of the Health Communication Campaign Model? Answer: Person (Place, Product, Price, Promotion) ____ is used to keep track of and assess campaign activities to identify areas that need fine-tuning. Answer: Process Evaluation Which of the following definitions best describes health literacy? Answer: The degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process, and understand basic health information needed to make health decisions. Health communication interventions influence: Answer: Awareness, Attitudes, Values, Norms True or False: Health communication is a comprehensive process that uses strategies and research guided by evidence-based practice. Answer: True When used appropriately, Health Communication Interventions can influence attitudes, perceptions, awareness, knowledge, and social norms. Strategic health communication efforts are effective at influencing behavior because they draw on social psychology, health education, mass communication, and marketing to develop and deliver influential health promotion and prevention messages that appeal to unique audience capabilities and orientations. The mere transmission of data does not equal effective communication. THE STRATEGIC HEALTH COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGN MODEL Stage 1: Planning Campaign Objectives Consumer Orientation Addressed two major issues: setting clear and realistic campaign objectives, and establishing a clear consumer orientation to make sure the campaign reflects the target audience’s specific concerns and cultural perspectives. A crucial first step in the development of effective health communication campaigns is the identification and clear conceptualization of an important public health threat or issue that can be effectively addressed by a communication effort. In this stage, the campaign planner carefully evaluates the nature of the health problem and considers possible messages and techniques that will influence the affected audience(s). Stage 2: Theory Exchange Theory Behavioral Theory Theories provide campaign planners with strategies for designing, implementing, and evaluating communication campaigns. Exchange theories, behavior theories, and readiness to change theories (such as the Transtheoretical Model) have been used most effectively in directing health promotion efforts at multiple levels (individual, network, organizational, and societal levels). Stage 3: Communication Analysis Audience analysis and segmentation Formative research Channel analysis and selection “shotgun and rifle” comparison. A shotgun approach represents a strategy that is widely implemented to everyone in a population. A rifle approach involves being more focused on a specific target audience. Segmentation has been defined as a process of dividing a population into distinct segments based on characteristics that influence their responsiveness to interventions, such as product benefits they find most attractive or the spokesperson they trust the most. Programs that target a population segment are generally more successful because the program efforts and resources can be focused directly on the specific wants and needs of that particular segment. Formative Research involved identifying the wants and needs of an audience as well as factors that influence their behaviors, including benefits, barriers, and readiness to change. Only after a population is segmented does the bulk of formative research really occur. Common formative research assessments include surveys, focus groups, in-depth interviews, expert interviews, opinion polls, and case studies. Audience analysis focuses on the distinct characteristics of the target audience, including wants; needs; motivational and resistance points; general attitudes, behaviors, and preferences related to the health problem what they know; what they fear; and how they likely react to specific methods related to the health problem. Market analysis examines the fit between the focus of interest (e.g. desired behavior change) and important market variables within the target audience. Marketing Mix is composed of four components: product, price, place and promotion. Product may be a behavior, a service or product desired for the target audience (e.g. mammogram), or even an idea to be adopted. Price is the cost the must pay to adopt the new behavior. It may include money, time, energy, or convenience. Place is where the product is accessed or obtained. Promotion involves the methods used to communicate with the target audience and is very similar to channel analysis. Channel analysis is a process that helps determine which communication settings, channels, and methods will most likely appeal to the target audience. Stage 4: Implementation Marketing Mix Process Evaluation Macro-social considerations Long term involvement and institutionalism The setting influences the types of ways, or channels, that can be used to reach a given audience. The settings where messages are delivered directly influence the types of channels needed to reach the target audience. Many channel options exist, including the following: Interpersonal channels: face to face or one on one interactions (i.e. provider to patient sessions, peer counseling) Small group channels: small numbers of persons, often organized to receive educational messages or to interact with other members within that small group. Organizational channels: institutions or agencies that communicate messages to their members or that collaborate or communicate with each other and professional associations. Mass media channels: mass-reach media including messages communicating via radio, television, school cable networks, newspapers, magazines billboards, public transportation displays, and community newsletters. Community channels: a catchall category for channels that are not organizational in nature, such as community messengers; community events; services or activities sponsored through malls, schools, hospitals, churches, libraries, or worksites; and open houses. Technology channels: the internet, interactive web sites, kiosks, video technology, and email. Stage 5: Evaluation and Reorientation Outcome evaluation Summative evaluation is conducted to determine the relative success of the campaign in achieving its goals at an acceptable cost, as well as to identify areas for future health promotion interventions. Process evaluation is used to keep track of and assess campaign activities to identify areas for fine tuning campaign communication efforts. Ch. 5: Social Marketing Concepts Quiz Questions In social marketing, ______ refers to the perceived costs or barriers associated with the product being offered. It is an essential aspect of the voluntary exchange dynamic. Answer: Price True or False: Consumer orientation is the basic concept that and organization’s mission is to bring about behavior change by meeting target markets needs and wants. Answer: True True of False: Positioning is about creating a personality for an offering based on its key attributes. Answer: True In social marketing ___ refers to where the consumer performs the desired behavior or accesses the product. Answer: Place The marketing mix is a combination of factors including: Answer: product, price, place, promotion. Social Marketing is the process for influencing human behavior on a larger scale, using marketing principles for the purpose of societal benefit rather than commercial profit. Social marketing is NOT another term for media advocacy, health communication, social advertising campaigns, or social communication. Media advocacy is the strategic use of mass media to advance public policy by applying pressure to policy matters. Health communication is the crafting and delivery of messages and strategies based on consumer research in order to promote the health of individuals and communities. Social advertising campaigns are advertising tools that attempt to influence attitudes and behavior related to social causes without any tie in with accessible, affordable, products and services. Social communication expands promotional efforts beyond the mass media approach and incorporates a network of appropriate people to assist in the “selling” of a particular cause. Examples of social marketing programs: The Pawtucket Heart Health Program Sanford Five-City Project Smokers’ Challenge Washington Heights low-fat milk campaign in New York City. To be a consumer driven health educator, one must adopt the though process of “the customer is king” Consumer orientation is the basic concept that an organization’s mission is to bring about behavior change by meeting the urgent market’s needs and wants. Exchange Theory, the linchpin of the marketing approach, indicates that by using the right promotion techniques to offer the right product, at the right price, through the right distribution channels, potential buyers will exchange or give up what they currently have, use, or believe for what is offered. The difference between commercial and social marketing is that in social marketing, the marketer’s objective for exchange is behavior change, whereas in commercial marketing, the objective is financial profit. There are eight demand states, or levels that health educators as marketers need to know about, recognize, and respond to in order to be effective: Negative demand exists when a large segment of a market dislikes a product and would even pay to avoid it. A marketer needs to find out the reasons for the resistance and plan strategies to counteract resistance. No demand occurs when customers are unmotivated by or are indifferent to a product. The marketer’s job is to connect potential product benefits with the needs and interests of prospective customers. Latent demand occurs when customers cannot find an existing product that meets a need they want satisfied. Marketer’s need to find out just how large the unsatisfied market is and decide if it is enough to warrant developing new products. Falling demand reflects a significant drop in the level of demand for a product. The job of the marketer is to identify the causes of the drop and plan strategies to reverse the trend. Irregular demand is characterized by fluctuation in the use of the product based on the season, day of work week, or even time of day. The marketer can increase demand during those seasons, days, and times by modifying the price, distribution, promotion and features of the product. Full demand exists when a company has all the business it needs. The marketer must then focus on the competition and possible changes in customer needs to make sure demand doesn’t drop. Overall demand exists when the demand is higher than the organization can or wants to handle. The marketer is in the position of needing to raise prices, change product features, decrease access, or cut back on promotion activities to reduce the demand level. Un wholesome demand for dangerous and hazardous products distributed by competitors requires marketers in other companies to come up with price, product, distribution, and promotion strategies to persuade people to give up those products. Positioning is about creating a personality for an offering based on it’s key attributes. A well- positioned offer holds a unique place, a niche in the customer’s mind. (different products with different personalities, sold in different ways, at different prices, and has different promotion campaigns) i.e. toothpaste and OTC medication The GOAL of marketing is customer satisfaction – giving people what they expect or more than they expected. Key Terms: Brand loyalty: a consistent preference for and choice of one particular company’s product or service. Brand recognition: when a customer remembers having seen or heard of the brand. Brand preference: when customers choose the bran out of habit or past experience, but will accept a substitute if the preferred brand is not readily available. Brand insistence: the highest level of of brand familiarity; when customers would rather fight than switch to another brand and go out of their way to find it. Now get some sleep and Ace this test tomorrow!!!

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