Chapter 4 - Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Chapter 4: Specifying a Purpose and Research Questions or Hypotheses Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Edition 5 John W. Creswell By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Distinguish among purpose statements, research questions, hypotheses, and objectives Describe why these statements and questions are important Write quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses Write qualitative purpose statements and research questions Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives Purpose Statement Research Questions Hypotheses Research Objectives Overall direction Intent Form Use Placement One or more sentences Quantitative and qualitative research End of introduction Raise questions to be answered One or more questions Quantitative and qualitative research End of the introduction, after the literature review, or in a separate section of the study Make predictions about expectations One or more statements Quantitative research One or more objectives Typically quantitative research State goals Why These Statements and Questions Are Important Represent major signposts Help identify appropriate methods Help link intent with the results What We Need to Know to Design Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses What is a variable? What is a theory? What elements go into these statements and questions? What Is a Variable? A Variable (A Characteristic or Attribute) That can be and Measured (Can be assessed on an instrument and recorded on an instrument) Varies (Can assume different values or scores for different individuals) Examples of Variables and Nonvariables Variables Leadership style Organizational control Autism Difficult, but possibly measurable, variables Socialization Imagination Intuition Discrimination Almost impossible to measure variables Subconscious thoughts World poverty Stereotypes Categorical and Continuous Measures of Variables A categorical measure is a value of a variable assigned by the researcher into a small number of categories (e.g., gender). A continuous measure is the value of a variable assigned by the researcher to a point along a continuum of scores, from low to high (e.g., age). Variables and Constructs A variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied way. A construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general way. Construct Student Achievement Variable Grade Point Average Families of Variables in Quantitative Studies Probable Cause Effect Independent Variables Treatment Measured Intervening Variables Dependent Variables Control Variables Moderating Variables Confounding Variables Family of Variables Dependent variables: An attribute or characteristic influenced by the independent variable. The outcome The effect The criterion The consequences Family of Variables (cont’d) Independent variable: An attribute or characteristic that influences or affects an outcome or dependent variable Treatment variable Measured variable Control variable Moderating variable Intervening Variables Intervening variables (mediating variables): An attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the dependent and independent variables Example of an Intervening Variable Independent Variable Independent Variable Intervening Variable Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Dependent Variable Dependent Variable Example Convenient office hours for students Student seeks help from faculty Example Example Convenient office hours for students Convenient office hours for students Student seeks help from faculty Independent Variable Independent Variable Intervening Variable Student becomes willing to take risks Student becomes willing to take risks Family of Variables Confounding variables (spurious variables): Attributes or characteristics that the researcher cannot directly measure because their effects cannot be easily separated from the other variables, even though they may influence the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable Theories as Bridges Between Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Variables Dependent Variables Different Types of Explanations in Quantitative Research Extensive Tests by Other Researchers Broad Abstractions No Test Narrow Application As a formal theory that is expressed by connected hypotheses and variables identified by authors As a conceptual framework often expressed as a visual model by other authors for relationship As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors based on studies for relationship An explanation posed by the author as a hunch for why the independent variable relates to the dependent variable Elements of a Quantitative Purpose Statement A quantitative purpose statement identifies the variables, their relationship, and the participants and site for research Guidelines for writing Use a single sentence Use wording such as The purpose of this study . . . If using a theory, state the theory you plan to test Use quantitative words (e.g., “relate,” “compare,” “describe”) to describe the relationships between variables Elements of Quantitative Purpose Statement (cont’d) Guidelines for writing (cont’d) Independent variable (1st position in sentence) Dependent variable (2nd position in sentence) Control and/or mediating variable (3rd position in sentence) Research site Participants Types of Quantitative Research Questions Describe results of your variables Compare two or more groups on the independent variable in terms of the dependent variable Relate two or more variables Guidelines for Writing Quantitative Research Questions Pose a question Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why” Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control variables Use the words describe, compare, or relate to indicate the action or connection among the variables Indicate the participants and the research site for the study Research Hypotheses: Types Null hypothesis No change in the dependent variable Example: There will be no significant difference in test scores between fifth-grade boys and girls on the XYZ achievement test. Directional alternative hypothesis Specifies the direction of the change in the dependent variable the researcher predicts will take place Example: Fifth-grade girls will have higher scores on the XYZ achievement test than fifth-grade boys. Research Hypotheses: Types (cont’d) Nondirectional alternative hypothesis Does not specify the direction of the change in the dependent variable Example: There will be a difference in test scores on the XYZ achievement test for fifth-grade boys and girls. Research Hypotheses Guidelines for writing State the variables in this order: independent (first position), dependent (second position), and control (third position) When comparing, explicitly state the groups; if variables are related, specify the relationship between the variables Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups. State information about the participants and the site unless it repeats information stated in your purpose statement Designing Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions Understand how these statements and questions differ from quantitative research Understand the role of a central phenomenon in qualitative research Understand qualitative research as an emerging process Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions Quantitative—more closed Probable cause/effect (“Why did it happen?”) Use of theories (“Why did it happen in view of an explanation or theory?”) Assess differences and magnitude (“How much happened?”) (“How many times did it happen?”) (“What were the differences among groups in what happened?”) Qualitative—more open-ended Descriptive (“What happened?”) Interpretive (“What was the meaning to people of what happened?”) Process-oriented (“What happened over time?”) Explaining or Predicting Variables Versus Exploring or Understanding a Central Phenomenon Quantitative Explaining or Predicting Variables Qualitative Understanding or Exploring a Central Phenomenon X Y The independent variable (X) influences a dependent variable (Y) In-depth understanding of Y; external forces shape and are shaped by Y Y Two Qualitative Research Considerations The focus of the research is around a central phenomenon which is an issue or a process the researcher would like to study. Qualitative research is built on an emerging design. Elements of Qualitative Purpose Statement A single sentence A statement such as, “The purpose of this study” The central phenomenon A statement identifying the type of qualitative design Qualitative words (e.g., “explore,” “understand,” “discover”) The participants The research site Types of Qualitative Research Questions: Central question: The overarching question you explore in the research study Subquestions: Divides the central question into smaller, specific questions Issue subquestions: Narrow the focus of the central question into specific issues Procedural subquestions: Indicate the steps to be used in analyzing the data in a qualitative study Interview questions: Questions that are asked during your interview that are based on your subquestions and central question