Animal Anatomy and Physiology

ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER 40: AN INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Animal Anatomy: An Overview Anatomy Physiology Tissues Epithelial Tissue Basement Membrane Simple Epithelium Stratified Epithelium Cells Cuboidal Columnar Squamous Glandular Epithelia Mucous Membrane Connective Tissue Collagenous Fibers Elastic Fibers Reticular Fibers Loose Connective Tissue Fibroblasts Macrophages Adipose Tissue Fibrous Connective Tissue Tendons Ligaments Cartilage Chondrocytes Bone Osteoblasts Osteons Blood Plasma Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets Nervous Tissue Neuron Axon Dendrite Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Striated Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle Organs Mesenteries Thoracic Cavity Abdominal Cavity Organs Systems Table 40.1 page 840 Body Plans and the External Environment Physical Laws Constrain Animal Form Body Size and Shape Affect Interactions with the Environment Regulating the Internal Environment Interstitial Fluid Homeostasis Homeostatic Control System Receptor Control Center Effector Negative Feedback Positive Feedback Introduction to the Bioenergetics of Animals Heterotrophism Metabolic Rate cal, kcal, C Endothermic Ectothermic Inverse Relationship between Body Size and Metabolic Rate Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR) Energy Budgets Energy Expenditures CHAPTER 41: ANIMAL NUTRITION Nutritional Requirements Fuel Biosynthesis Glucose Regulation Caloric Imbalance Undernourishment Overnourishment Obesity Essential Nutrients Malnourished Essential Amino Acids Essential Fatty Acids Vitamins Table 41.1 page 854 Minerals Table 41.2 page 855 Food Types and Feeding Mechanisms Opportunistic Feeders Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Suspension-Feeders Substrate-Feeders Fluid-Feeders Bulk-Feeders Overview of Food Processing Ingestion Digestion Enzymatic Hydrolysis Absorption Elimination Specialized Compartments Intracellular Digestion Extracellular Digestion Gastrovascular Cavities Complete Digestive Tract Alimentary Canal The Mammalian Digestive System Peristalsis Sphincters Glands Salivary Gland Pancreas Liver Gallbladder The Oral Cavity Teeth Saliva Mucin Buffers Antibacterial Agents Salivary Amylase Tongue Bolus The Pharynx Glottis Epiglottis The Esophagus Peristalsis Voluntary Muscles Involuntary Muscles The Stomach Upper Abdominal Cavity Accordion-like Folds and Elastic Wall Storing Food Digestion Gastric Juice HCl Pepsin Pepsinogen Chief Cells Mucous Ulcers Mechanical Mixing Acid Chyme Heart Burn or Reflux Cardiac Sphincter Pyloric Sphincter The Small Intestine Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients Duodenum Pancreas Hydrolytic Enzymes Alkaline Solution (Bicarbonate) Liver Bile Bile Salts Bile Pigments Enzymatic Action Carbohydrate Digestion Starch and Glycogen Oral Cavity Salivary Amylase Small Intestine Pancreatic Amylases Maltase Sucrase Lactase Intestinal Epithelium Protein Digestion Stomach Pepsin Pepsinogen Small Intestine (Duodenum) Trypsin (Pancreas) Chymotrypsin (Pancreas) Dipeptidases Carboxypeptidase (Pancreas) Aminopeptidase Intestinal Epithelium Enteropeptidases (Activator) Nucleic Acid Digestion Nucleases Fat Digestion Insolubility Duodenum Bile Salts (From Gallbladder) Emulsification Lipase Absorption of Nutrients Jejunum ileum Villi Microvilli Capillaries Lacteal Passive Diffusion (Fructose) Active Transport (Amino Acids, Small Peptides, Vitamins, Glucose, etc.) Blood Stream Chylomicrons Hepatic Portal Vessel Liver Digestive Efficiency and Cost Hormones Helping Digestion Released from Stomach and Duodenum Nerve Impulses Gastrin (Stomach) Negative Feedback Enterogastrones (Duodenum) Secretin Cholecystokinin (CCK) Large Intestine (Colon) Cecum/ Appendix Recovering Water Feces Diarrhea Constipation Natural “Flora” Vitamin Production Fiber Salts Rectum Sphincters (Voluntary and Involuntary) Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems Structural Adaptations Dentition Jaw Hinge Expandable Stomachs Length of Alimentary Canals Herbivore = Longer Carnivore = Shorter Symbiotic Microorganisms Ruminants CHAPTER 42: CIRCULATION AND GAS EXCHANGE Circulation in Animals Gastrovascular Cavities Blood Pressure Open Circulatory Systems Hemolymph Hearts Sinuses Closed Circulatory Systems Blood Hearts Vessels Cardiovascular System Heart Atria Ventricles Vessels Arteries Veins Capillaries Arterioles Capillary Beds Venules Blood Flow Two Chambered Heart (Fish) Gill Circulation Systemic Circulation Three Chambered Heart (Amphibian and Most Reptiles) Pulmocutaneous Circulation Systemic Circulation Double Circulation Four Chambered Heart (Crocodiles, Birds, and Mammals) Endothermic Figure 42.3 page 874 Double Circulation in Mammals Figure 42.4 page 875 The Mammalian Heart Cardiac Cycle Systole Diastole Cardiac Output Heart Rate Stroke Volume Valves Atrioventricular (AV) Valve Semilunar Valves Pulse Heart Murmur Figure 42.5 page 876 Figure 42.6 page 876 Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat Sinoatrial (SA) Node Pacemaker Atrioventricular (AV) Node Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) Figure 42.7 page 877 Structural Differences of Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries Endothelium Figure 42.8 page 878 Blood Flow Velocity Flow Through Arteries Flow Through Veins Figure 42.9 page 878 Blood Pressure Systolic Pressure Peripheral Resistance Diastolic Pressure Cardiac Output Figure 42.10 page 879 Figure 42.11 page 880 Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds Figure 42.12 page 881 Capillary Exchange Figure 42.13 page 881 Lymphatic System Lymph Lymph Nodes Composition of Blood Connective Tissue Plasma Cellular Elements Red Blood Cells Erythrocytes Hemoglobin White Blood Cells Leukocytes Platelets Stem Cells Pluripotent Bone Marrow Erythropoietin Blood Clotting Fibrinogen Fibrin Hemophilia Thrombus Cardiovascular Diseases Heart Attack Stroke Atherosclerosis Arteriosclerosis Hypertension Cholesterol Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL’s) High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL’s) Gas Exchange in Animals Gas Exchange Respiratory Medium Respiratory Surface Gills Ventilation Countercurrent Exchange Tracheal Systems Lungs Mammalian Respiratory Systems Nasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Voicebox Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli Capillaries Ventilating the Lungs Breathing Positive Pressure Breathing Negative Pressure Breathing Diaphragm Tidal Volume Vital Capacity Residual Volume Parabronchi (Birds) Breathing Regulation Breathing Control Centers Figure 42.26 page 893 Gas Diffusion Partial Pressure Oxygen Transport Respiratory Pigments Hemocyanin Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve Carbon Dioxide Transport Hemoglobin Carbonic Anhydrase Carbonic Acid Bicarbonate Figure 42.29 page 896 Deep-Diving Adaptations for Respiration CHAPTER 43: THE BODY’S DEFENSES Nonspecific Defenses Against Infection First Line of Defense Epithelial Tissue Skin Mucous Membranes Lysozyme Second Line of Defense White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Phagocytosis Phagocytic Cells Neutrophils Chemotaxis Monocytes Macrophages Lysosome Eosinophils Natural Killer (NK) Cells Inflammatory Response Histamine Basophils Mast Cells Chemokines Figure 43.5 page 903 Antimicrobial Proteins Complement System Interferons How Specific Immunity Arises B Lymphocytes (B Cells) T Lymphocytes (T Cells) Antigen Antibodies Antigen Receptors T Cell Receptors Effector Cells Memory Cells Clonal Selection Primary Immune Response Plasma Cells Secondary Immune Response Immune Tolerance for Self Role of Surface Markers in T Cell Function Major Histocompatibility Complex(MHC) Class I MHC Molecules Class II MHC Molecules Antigen Presentation Cytotoxic T Cells (TC) Helper T Cells (TH) Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) Immune Responses Humoral Immunity Cell-Mediated Immunity Helper T Lymphocytes CD4 Molecule Cytokines Interleukin-2 (IL-2) Interleukin-1 (IL-1) Cytotoxic T Cells CD8 Perforin Tumor Antigen B Cell Antibodies T-Dependent Antigens T-Independent Antigens Antibody Structure and Function Epitope Immunoglobulins (Igs) Heavy Chains Light Chains Monoclonal Antibodies Antibody-Mediated Disposal of Antigen Neutralization Opsonization Agglutination Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) Immune Adherence Invertebrate Rudimentary Immune System Immunity in Health and Disease Active Immunity Immunization Vaccination Passive Immunity Blood Groups and Blood Transfusion ABO Blood Groups Rh Factors Tissue Grafts and Organ Transplantation Allergies Anaphylactic Shock Autoimmune Diseases Lupus Rheumatoid Arthritis Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Immunodeficiency Diseases Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) Hodgkin’s Disease Emotional Stress Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) HIV-1 and HIV-2 CD4 Molecules CHAPTER 44: REGULATING THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT Homeostatis Thermoregulation Osmoregulation Excretion An Overview of Homeostasis Regulator Conformers Budgets (gains and losses) Regulation of Body Temperature Q10 Effect Conduction Convection Radiation Evaporation Ectotherm Endotherm Adjusting the Rate of Heat Exchange with the Environment Vasodilation Vasoconstriction Countercurrent Heat Exchanger Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss Behavioral Responses Changing the Rate of Metabolic Heat Production Mammals and Birds Nonshivering Thermogenesis (NST) Brown Fat Insulation Hair Fat Feathers Amphibians and Reptiles Fishes Invertebrates Feedback Mechanisms in Thermoregulation Acclimatization Torpor Hibernation Estivation Daily Torpor Water Balance and Waste Disposal Osmoregulation Transport Epithelium Nitrogenous Waste Ammonia Urea Uric Acid Osmolarity Osmoconformer Osmoregulator Maintaining Water Balance in the Sea Maintaining Osmotic Balance in Fresh Water Anhydrobiosis Maintaining Osmotic Balance on Land Excretory Systems Selective Reabsorption Secretion Filtration Filtrate Protonephridia: Flame-Bulb Systems Metanephridia Malpighian Tubules Vertebrate Kidneys Mammalian Kidneys Figure 44.21 page 944 Renal Artery and Renal Vein Ureter Urinary Bladder Urethra Renal Cortex Renal Medulla Nephron Glomerulus Bowman’s Capsule Filtration of the Blood Pathway of the Filtrate Proximal Tubule Loop of Henle Distal Tubule Collecting Duct Cortical Nephrons Juxtamedullary Nephrons Blood Vessels Associated with the Nephrons Afferent Arteriole Efferent Arteriole Peritubular Capillaries Vasa Recta From Blood Filtrate to Urine Figure 44.22 page 946 Proximal Tubule Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle Distal Tubule Collecting Duct The Kidney’s Conservation of Water Figure 44.23 page 948 Regulation of the Kidney’s Functions Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA) Aldosterone Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) Figure 44.24 page 950 Special Habitat Adaptations CHAPTER 45: CHEMICAL SIGNALS IN ANIMALS Hormone Target Cells An Introduction to Regulatory Systems Endocrine System Endocrine Glands Neurosecretory Cells Figure 45.1 page 956 Invertebrate Regulatory Systems Ecdysone Brain Hormone (BH) Juvenile Hormone (JH) Figure 45.2 page 957 Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action Local Regulators Growth Factors Nitric Oxide (NO) Prostaglandins (PGs) Signal Transduction Pathways Reception Signal Transduction Response Figure 45.3 and 45.4 page 959 Intracellular Receptors Steroid Hormones Thyroid Hormones The Vertebrate Endocrine System Figure 45.5 page 960 Table 45.1 page 961 Tropic Hormones Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Anterior Pituitary (Adrenohypophysis) Releasing Hormones Inhibiting Hormones Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) Posterior Pituitary Hormones Oxytocin Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Figure 45.6 page 963 Anterior Pituitary Hormones Growth Hormone (GH) Insulinlike Growth Factors (IGFs) Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Gonadotropins Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH) Endorphins Pineal Gland Melatonin Thyroid Gland Triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroxine (T4) Development and Maturation Homeostasis Calcitonin Parathyroid Glands Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Vitamin D Figure 45.9 page 967 Pancreas Islets of Langerhans Alpha Cells Glucagon Beta Cells Insulin Figure 45.10 page 968 Type I Diabetes Mellitus (Insulin-Dependent Diabetes) Type II Diabetes Mellitus (Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes) Adrenal Glands Adrenal Cortex Corticosteroids Glucocorticoids Cortisol Mineralocorticoids Aldosterone Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine (Adrenaline) Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) Catecholamines Stress and the Adrenal Gland Figure 45.14 page 971 Gonadal Steroids Androgens Testosterone Estrogens Estradiol Progestins Progesterone CHAPTER 46: ANIMAL REPRODUCTION Overview of Animal Reproduction Sexual Reproduction Gametes Ovum Spermatozoon Zygote Asexual Reproduction Fission Budding Fragmentation Regeneration Reproductive Cycles Parthenogenesis Hermaphroditism Sequential Hermaphroditism Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction Fertilization External Internal Pheromones Gonads Spermatheca Cloaca Mammalian Reproduction Anatomy of the Human Male Figure 46.8 page 981 Testes Seminiferous Tubules Leydig Cells Scrotum Epididymis Ejaculation Vas Deferens Ejaculatory Duct Urethra Semen Seminal Vesicles Prostate Gland Bulbourethral Glands Penis Baculum Viagra Glans Penis Prepuce (Foreskin) Anatomy of the Human Female Figure 46.9 page 983 Ovaries Follicle Ovulation Corpus Luteum Oviduct Uterus Endometrium Cervix Vagina Hymen Vestibule Labia Minora Labia Majora Clitoris Bartholin’s Glands Mammary Glands Human Sexual Response Vasocongestion Myotonia Coitus (Sexual Intercourse) Orgasm Spermatogenesis Figure 46.11 page 985 Spermatogonia Acrosome Oogenesis Figure 46.13 page 986 Oogonia Primary Oocytes Secondary Oocytes Male Pattern Hormones Androgens Testosterone Figure 46.14 page 987 Female Pattern Hormones Figure 46.15 page 988 Menstrual Cycle (compared to Estrous Cycles) Menstruation Estrus Menstrual Flow Phase Proliferative Phase Secretory Phase Ovarian Cycle Follicular Phase Ovulation Luteal Phase Hormones LH FSH Estrogens Progesterone Menopause Embyronic and Fetal Development From Conception to Birth Pregnancy (Gestation) Embyro Conception First Trimester Zygote Cleavage and Blastocyst Placenta Organogenesis Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) Second Trimester Third Trimester Labor (Figure 46.19 page 992 Parturition (Birth) Lactation Reproductive Immunology The “Enigma” Trophoblast Contraception Figure 46.21 page 994 Abstinence Rhythm Method Natural Family Planning Barrier Methods Condom Diaphragm Intrauterin Devices (IUDs) Coitus Interruptus (Withdrawal) Chemical Contraceptives Birth Control Pills Sterilization Tubal Ligation Female: Tube tie Male: Vasectomy Modern Technology Solving Reproductive Problems Diagnoses Ultrasound Imaging Sperm Donation In Vitro Fertilization CHAPTER 48: NERVOUS SYSTEM An Overview of Nervous Systems Sensory Receptors Sensory Input Central Nervous System (CNS) Motor Output Effector Cells Nerves Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Neuron Structure and Synapses Figure 48.2 page 1023 Neuron or Nerve Cell Cell Body Dendrites Axons Axon Hillock Myelin Sheath Synaptic Terminals Neurotransmitters Synapse Presynaptic Cell Postsynaptic Cell A Simple Nerve Circuit- the Reflex Arc Figure 48.3 page 1024 Reflex Reflex Arc Sensory Neuron Motor Neuron Effector Cell Interneurons Ganglia Nuclei Types of Nerve Circuits Supporting Cells (Glia) Astrocytes Blood-Brain Barrier Oligodendrocytes Schwann Cells Figure 48.5 page 1026 The Nature of Nerve Signals Measuring Membrane Potentials Membrane Potential Resting Potential Figure 48.6 page 1027 Maintaining a Membrane Potential Figure 48.7 page 1027 Sodium-Potassium Pumps Chloride Changes in Membrane Potential and Nerve Impulses Excitable Cells Gated Ion Channels Chemically-Gated Ion Channels Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Figure 48.8 page 1029 Gated Potentials Hyperpolarization Depolarization Gated Potentials Action Potentials Threshold Potential Action Potential Figure 48.9 page 1030 Propagation of Nerve Impulse Along an Axon Figure 48.11 page 1032 Saltatory Conduction Electrical Synapses Chemical Synapses Figure 48.12 page 1033 Synaptic Cleft Synaptic Vesicles Neurotransmitter Presynaptic Membrane Postsynaptic Membrane Neural Integration Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) Summation Figure 48.13 page 1035 Neurotransmitters Table 48.1 page 1037 Acetylcholine Biogenic Amines Epinephrine Norepinephrine Dopamine Serotonin Amino Acids Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Glycine Glutamate Aspartate Neuropeptides Substance P Endorphins Gaseous Signals of the Nervous System Nitric Oxide (NO) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Evolution and Diversity of Nervous Systems Cell Responses to the Environment Nerve Nets Cephalization Nerve Cords Figure 48.15 page 1039 Vertebrate Nervous Systems Figure 48.16 page 1040 Central Nervous System Central Canal Ventricles Cerebrospinal Fluid White Matter Gray Matter Peripheral Nervous System Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves Sensory Division Afferent (Incoming) Motor Division Efferent (Outgoing) Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division Figure 48.18 page 1041 Brain Anatomy and Physiology Forebrain Cerebrum Cerebral Hemispheres Basal Nuclei Neocortex Corpus Callosum Cerebral Cortex Thalamus Epithalamus Hypothalamus Circadian Rhythm Biological Clock Suprachiasmatic Nuclei (SCN) The Brainstem Midbrain Hindbrain Medulla Oblongata Pons Cerebellum Reticular Formation Arousal Sleep Electroencephalogram (EEG) Specializations of the Cerebrum Figure 48.24 page 1047 Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex Frontal Temporal Occipital Parietal Primary Motor Cortex Figure 48.25 page 1048 Primary Somatosensory Cortex Integrative Function of the Association Areas Lateralization of Brain Function Language and Speech Broca’s Area Emotions Limbic System Memory and Learning Short-term Memory Long-term Memory Long-term Depression (LTD) Long-term Potentiation (LTP) Human Consciousness CNS Injuries and Diseases (Treatment and Research) Nerve Cell Development Neural Stem Cells CHAPTER 49: SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS Sensing, Acting, and Brains Cyclical Processing Instead of Linear Introduction to Sensory Reception Sensations Perception Sensory Reception Sensory Receptors Exteroreceptors Interoreceptors Sensory Transduction Receptor Potential Figure 49.2 page 1060 (Taste Buds) Amplification Transmission Integration Sensory Adaptation Sensory Receptors Mechanoreceptors Muscle Spindle Figure 49.3 page 1061 Hair Cell Figure 49.4 page 1061 Pain Receptors Nociceptors Thermoreceptors Chemoreceptors Gustatory (Taste) Olfactory (Smell) Electromagnetic Receptors Photoreceptors Photoreceptors and Vision Diversity of Photoreceptors Eye Cup Compound Eyes Ommatidia Single-Lens Eye The Vertebrate Single-Lens Eye Figure 49.9 page 1064 Sclera Choroid Conjunctiva Iris Pupil Retina Lens Ciliary Body Aqueous Humor Vitreous Humor Focusing the Eye Figure 49.10 page 1065 Accomodation Rod Cells Cone Cells Fovea Light-Absorbing Pigment Figure 49.11 page1066 Retinal Opsin Rhodopsin Bipolar Cells Figure 49.13 page 1067 Figure 49.14 page 1067 Photopsins Color Blindness Processing Visual Information Bipolar Cells Ganglion Cells Figure 49.15 page 1068 Horizontal Cells Amacrine Cells Lateral Inhibition Optic Chiasm Lateral Geniculate Nuclei Primary Visual Cortex Figure 49.16 page 1068 Hearing and Equilibrium The Mammalian Ear Figure 49.17 page 1070 Outer Ear Tympanic Membrane Middle Ear Malleus Incus Stapes Oval Window Inner Ear Cochlea Organ of Corti Round Window Pitch Equilibrium Utricle Saccule Simicircular Canals Figure 49.19 page 1071 The Lateral Line System (Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates) Gravity Sensors Statocysts Statoliths Chemoreception – Taste and Smell Interrelatedness of Taste and Smell Olfaction in Humans Figure 49.24 page 1075 Taste Buds Movement and Locomotion Energy Requirement Swimming Locomotion on Land Flying Cellular and Skeletal Underpinnings of Locomotion Skeletal Functions Hydrostatic Skeletons Exoskeletons Chitin Endoskeletons Human Skeleton Figure 49.28 page 1079 Body Proportions and Posture Structure and Function of Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle Figure 49.30 page 1080 Skeletal Muscle Myofibrils Myofilaments Thin Filaments Thick Filaments Sarcomere Z Lines I Bands A Bands Figure 49.31 page 1081 Interactions Between Myosin and Actin Myosin Actiin Sliding Filament Model Figure 49.33 page 1082 Control of Muscle Contraction Tropomyosin Troponin Complex Sarcoplasmic Reticulum T (transverse) Tubules Figure 49.35 page 1083 Figure 49.36 page 1084 Variation in Muscle Activity Tetanus Motor Unit Recruitment Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers Myoglobin Other Types of Muscle Cardiac Muscle Intercalated Discs Smooth Muscle