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Chapter 7 - Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
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Chapter 7: Collecting Qualitative Data
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Edition 5
John W. Creswell
By the end of this chapter,
you should be able to:
Identify the five process steps in collecting qualitative data
Identify different sampling approaches to selecting participants and sites
Describe the types of permissions required to gain access to participants and sites
Recognize the various types of qualitative data you can collect
Identify the procedures for recording qualitative data
Recognize the field issues and ethical considerations to anticipate in administering the data collection
Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection
Identify participants and sites
Gain access to individuals and sites
Identify what types of information will answer your research questions
Design protocols or instruments for collecting and recording information
Administer the data collection
Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Data Collection
Qualitative researchers identify participants and sites through purposeful sampling.
Qualitative studies are usually conducted at the research site.
Qualitative studies rely on general interviews or observations not others’ instruments.
Qualitative researchers record information through self-designed protocols.
Qualitative studies require sensitivity to challenges and ethical issues from gathering face-to-face information, often in homes and workplaces.
Who Will Be Studied:
Purposeful Sampling
Random “Quantitative” Sampling
Select representative individuals
To generalize from sample to population
To make “claims” about the population
To build/test “theories” that explain the population
Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling
Select people/sites who can best help us understand our
phenomenon
To develop detailed understanding
That might be “useful” information
That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon
That might give voice to “silenced” people
Types of Purposeful Sampling
When Does Sampling Occur?
Before Data Collection
After Data Collection
Has Started
What is the intent?
To develop
many
perspectives
Extreme
Case
Sampling
To describe
particularly
troublesome
or enlightening
cases
Typical
Sampling
To describe what
is “typical” to
those unfamiliar
with the case
What is the intent?
To take advantage
of whatever case
unfolds
Opportunistic
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
To explore
confirming or
disconfirming
cases
Confirming/
Disconfirming
Sampling
Maximal
Variation
Sampling
To generate a theory
or concept
Critical
Sampling
To describe some
subgroup in depth
Homogenous
Sampling
To describe a
case that illustrates “dramatically” the situation
Theory or Concept
Sampling
To locate people
or sites to study
Sample Size
Small for in-depth perspective
A few individuals
A few cases
30 – 40 in some situations
Permissions That Are Needed
Gain permission from Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Gain permission from “gatekeepers” at the research site
Gatekeepers are individuals at the site who provide site access, help researcher locate people and identify places to study.
The gatekeeper may require written information about the project.
Strategies for the IRB Process
Determine whether reviewers are family with qualitative inquiry.
Develop detailed description of procedures.
Detail how you will protect anonymity.
Discuss the need to respect the site and minimize disruption.
Strategies for the IRB Process (cont’d)
Describe opportunities to reciprocate.
Develop detailed description of procedures.
Acknowledge you may adopt participant beliefs.
Specify power imbalances.
Detail time required at the site.
Provide the list of interview questions.
Information for the Gatekeeper
Why their site was chosen
What time and resources are required
What will be accomplished at the site
What potential there is for your presence to be disruptive
What individuals at the site will gain from the study
How you will use and report the results
The Information You Will Collect
Observations
Interviews
Open-ended questions on questionnaires
Documents
Audiovisual materials
Observations
An observation is the process of gathering first-hand information by observing people and places at a research site.
Observational roles
Participant observer: An observational role adopted by researchers when they take part in activities in the setting they observe
Nonparticipant observer: An observer who visits a site and records notes without becoming involved in the activities of the participants
Observational roles can be changed.
The Process of Observing
Select a site that will help you understand the central phenomenon and obtain the required permissions to gain access to the site
Ease into the site slowly by looking around, getting a general sense of the site, and taking limited notes, at least initially
Identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe
Determine, initially, your role as an observer
The Process of Observing (cont’d)
Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best understanding of the site and the individuals
Design some means for recording notes during an observation
Consider what information to record
Descriptive fieldnotes describe the events, activities, and people
Reflective fieldnotes record personal reflections that relate to their insights, hunches, or broad themes that emerge
Remain unobtrusive.
When complete, slowly withdraw from the site
Interviews
Types: One-on-one, focus group, phone, e-mail
General open-ended questions that are asked allow the participant to:
Create options for responding
Voice their experiences and perspectives
Information is recorded, then transcribed for analysis
Interview Procedures
Identify the interviewees
Determine the type of interview you will use (e.g., focus group, one-on-one)
Record the audio of the conversation.
Take brief notes during the interview
Locate a quiet, suitable place
Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study
Interview Procedures (cont’d)
During the interview, have an interview plan using your interview protocol, but be flexible
Use probes to elicit more information
Include possible probes in your interview protocol
Use probes to elaborate and clarify
Be courteous and professional when the interview is over
Collecting Documents
Identify types of documents that may be useful
Consider public and private documents
Obtain permission before using documents
Provide specific instructions if you ask participants to keep a journal
Examine for accuracy, completeness, and usefulness
Optically scan documents when possible
Collecting Audiovisual Materials
Determine what material can provide evidence to address your research questions
Determine what visual material is available and obtain permission to use it
Check the accuracy and authenticity of the material if you do not record it yourself
Collect the data and organize it
Recording Data Using Protocols
Interview protocol:
Instructions for the process of the interview
The questions to be asked
Possible probes associated with each question
Space to take notes on responses from the interviewee
Observation protocols:
Used for taking fieldnotes during an observation
Interview Protocols
The header: Essential information about the interview, such as purpose, reminder to obtain consent and record.
Open-ended questions
“Ice-breaker”
Questions that address major research questions
Probes that clarify and elaborate
Include space between each question for notes
Closing comments thanking the participant
Observational Protocols
In the header, record information about the time, place, setting, and your observational role
Divide the rest of the protocol into two columns:
Left column to record descriptive notes about the activities at the site
Right column to record reflective notes about themes, quotes, and personal experiences at the site
Include a sketch of the site
Field Issues in Data Collection
Sufficient access to the site for data collection
Sufficient time for data collection
Limit initial collection to one or two observations or interviews
Time is needed to establish a substantial database
Observational role
Building rapport with participants
Obtaining permission to use documents and audiovisual materials
Ethical Issues
Informing participants of purpose
Refraining from deceptive practices
Sharing your role as researcher
Being respectful of the research site
Giving back or reciprocity
Using ethical interview practices
Maintaining confidentiality
Collaborating with participants
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