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Phrenology: Phrenology was popular until the turn of the 20th century. Phrenologists maintained that criminal behavior was related to the size and shape of the human skull. They closely scrutinized the grooves, ridges, and number of bumps on a skull. The shape of the brain, which was influenced by the shape of the skull, was thought to be sufficient to predict criminal activity. Although there were isolated incidents in which offenders with criminal-prone skulls were treated more harshly than other offenders, this approach was not widely incorporated into correctional systems. Scientific studies have found no evidence of correlations between criminal behavior and the shape of the skull.
Lombrosian Theory: Around the beginning of the 20th century, biological/constitutional theories were popular. The prototype of such theories was Cesare Lombroso's theory of the born criminal. This school maintained that a criminal inherits certain physical abnormalities or stigmata, such as a scanty beard, low sensitivity to pain, distorted nose, large lips, or long arms. The more such stigmata a person had, the more he or she was thought to be predisposed to a criminal career. People with several stigmata were thought to be unable to refrain from criminal activity unless their social environment was unusually favorable. The theory that criminals have distinct physical characteristics was refuted by Charles Goring, who found no significant physical differences in a study comparing several thousand criminals with several thousand noncriminals.
Mental Deficiency Theory: The mental deficiency theory replaced the Lombrosian school when the latter fell into disrepute. Mental deficiency theory asserted that criminal behavior resulted from feeblemindedness, which was alleged to impair the capacity to acquire morality and self-control or to appreciate the meaning of laws. As mental tests became standardized and widely used, it was discovered that many criminals achieved average or above-average intelligence scores. The theory waned in popularity in the 1930s. Neither the Lombrosian nor the mental deficiency approach had a lasting, significant effect on corrections.
Morphological Theory: Closely related to the mental deficiency and Lombrosian theories is morphological theory, which asserted that there is a fundamental relationship between psychological makeup and physical structure. The most popular variant of this theory was William Sheldon's, developed in the 1940s. Sheldon described three body categories: endomorph (obese), mesomorph (muscular), and ectomorph (lean). To the mesomorph he ascribed an unusual propensity to criminal activity. Sheldon did not assert that mesomorphs were inherently criminally prone. Rather, he asserted that this physique was associated with a distinctive type of temperament, characterized by such traits as love of physical adventure, abundance of restless energy, and enjoyment of exercise. Mesomorphy thus produced energetic, aggressive, and daring types of individuals, such as generals, athletes, and politicians, as well as criminals. Morphological approaches like Sheldon's are still popular in southern European and South American countries. Scientific studies, however, have found little evidence that muscular people are more likely to commit crimes than people who are lean or overweight.
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