In many memory studies, instead of asking a participant to learn things, they are asked to make ...

In many memory studies, instead of asking a participant to learn things, they are asked to make judgments about those things.
 
  a. Orienting tasks are important to control the kinds of memory codes formed.
  b. Orienting tasks are important to understand the auditory-memory span.
  c. Judging tasks are important to understand the underlying assumptions individuals make with regards to the research.
  d. Judging tasks are important to prevent experimenter expectancy effects.

Question 2

Patient PV, who had an impaired STM, was unable to learn any responses in a paired-associates task when she had to rely entirely on
 
  a. semantic codes. c. visual codes.
  b. phonemic codes. d. All of these