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Social Inequality
Week 7 Lecture
Objectives
To understand the basic concepts of social stratification: status, social mobility, social class, power, hierarchies
To understand several of the major theories of social stratification, including the theories of Marx and Weber
To be aware of Canada’s stratification structure and the factors of social differentiation and their interrelationships
To recognize some of the major consequences of stratification for people
Concepts and Definitions
Social inequality:
Relatively enduring ranking and evaluation of individuals and groups due to the division of labour in society.
Power:
The ability to command resources is the basic concept in explaining the relations between unequal groups.
Institutionalized power:
A recurring part of existence established in laws or customs. (2005: Education Canada)
Concepts and Definitions
Status: One’s position in social life.
Stratum: A cluster of positions, e.g., clerks.
Status inconsistency: When an individual’s ranking on one status hierarchy has little relationship to rankings on other hierarchies.
Ascribed status:
Assigned by circumstance, e.g., birth.
Achieved status:
Attained by individual action, e.g., education.
(2005, Education Canada)
Status Hierarchies
Socioeconomic:
Wealth
Occupation
Education
Race or ethnicity
Region or rural/urban location
Gender
Age
Political status
(2005, Education Canada)
Social Mobility
Intergenerational mobility:
Difference between the occupational status of child and parent.
Intragenerational mobility:
Occupational changes within his/her life.
Vertical mobility:
Movement up or down a status hierarchy.
Horizontal mobility:
Movement between positions of the same rank. (2005, Education Canada)
Class and Social Class
Class:
A category of people with the same economic power, e.g. property ownership
Weber’s view of class and Marx’s view of “class in itself.”
Social class:
Individuals must also have a common sense of identity.
Marx’s view of “class for itself.”
(2005, Education Canada)
Marx: Class, Conflict, and the Power of Property
Each major societal form is characterized by a struggle between the “haves” and “have-nots.”
Productive property is the source of the division called the “means of production.”
Bourgeoisie: control means of production.
Proletariat: workers who would overthrow the bourgeoisie transforming capitalism to socialism and a classless society.
(2005, Education Canada)
Weber’s Critique of Marx
Multiple power sources:
Class: from economic power
Status group: from status honour or prestige
Party: power from political groups
Middle classes would be a growing force.
Bureaucracy poses a threat to equality and freedom and is even more oppressive in socialist systems.
(2005, Education Canada)
Structural Functionalism
Different emphases than Marx
Consensus: Underlying agreement about inequality. Differential rewards are necessary for crucial jobs. Social inequality is inevitable.
Individual action: Position is determined by occupation not wealth
Pluralism of power: Independent major institutions cooperate for general good, not controlled by capitalists
(2005, Education Canada)
Combining Theories
From Weber and functionalists: acknowledge multiple bases of power.
From Marx: control of property and wealth is the most important source of power.
From Weber: education and occupation are also crucial.
Other hierarchies are crucial too.
(2005, Education Canada)
Inequality in Canada
Wealth and income
Over 50 years an increase in wealth for all
Relative portion of incomes earned by top and bottom quintiles has changed little
Concentration by corporations
Occupation
Increase of white-collar workers, but their relative incomes have declined
(2005, Education Canada)
Inequality in Canada (cont’d)
Education
Higher education is related to higher incomes
Great increase in proportions of people with degrees and diplomas
Increasing proportions from low socioeconomic backgrounds attending
(2005, Education Canada)
Inequality in Canada (cont’d)
Racial and ethnic inequality
Different categories have different incomes
British no longer enjoy a dominant position
Some groups have high education and low incomes
British still are predominant at elite levels
French Canadians now doing well
Native position is improving but still greatly disadvantaged (2005, Education Canada)
Inequality in Canada (cont’d)
Regional and rural/urban
Urban areas have highest incomes
Most developed regions, e.g., Ontario and British Columbia have highest incomes
Gender
56% of women now work
Earnings of women are 73% of men’s earnings
(2005, Education Canada)
Inequality in Canada (cont’d)
Age
Relationship with income is curvilinear: highest earners are middle-aged
Elderly have seen improvement in income
Political power
State, the political structure, and economic leaders tend to agree on general goals and values
Sate composed of middle class
Higher socioeconomic groups more likely to vote (2005, Education Canada)
Effects of Rank
Life chances
Rich live longer and are healthier
Lifestyles
Life in lower strata is more restrictive and members participate less in organizations
Values and beliefs
Lower strata place less emphasis on personal freedom and “self direction”
(2005, Education Canada)
A More Egalitarian Future?
Some decline in inequality, but likely to be a significant problem.
As Marx and Weber found, inequalities will continue to exist between haves and have-nots.
(2005, Education Canada)
Research Methods
Week 12 Lecture
Sociological Research
Positivism: use of natural science methods in the social sciences (Durkheim)
The Case for Value-Free Sociology
Max Weber, 1946:
A state of personal neutrality in conducting research
Value relevant – personal beliefs play a part in the selection of research topics
However, research should be conducted value-free
Research Methods
Theory: a set of interrelated statements that organize and summarize knowledge about the world
Variable: something that takes on different values
Hypothesis: statement of presumed relationship between variables
Dependent variable: the variable being explained or effect (EFFECT!)
Independent variable: the variable doing the explaining or cause (CAUSE!)
(2005: Education Canada)
Research
Deductive Logic ? deriving a specific state from a general one.
If A ? C, the A ? C1, C2, C3
Measurement: transforming theoretical to operational language
Operational definitions: how you break down the variables into measurable categories.
Validity: are you measuring what you intend to measure?
Reliability: measures should be consistent, if you repeat the study will you get the same results?
Population: The group of people one is interested in studying
Sampling: subset of people from the population which will be studies. It should be:
Representative (allows conclusions toe be generalized back to the population under study)1
Analysis
We look for relationships in the data (particularly relationships between the variables understudy!)
Control Variables are other variables that one needs to take into account statistically
Quantitative Research
Counting and precise measurement of observable behaviour
Limited number of variables
Prediction
Focuses on numbers and statistics
Common methods are questionnaires or surveys which are later analyzed statistically
Software programs for statistical analysis include: SPSS, SAS, R
Survey Research
Can take the form of questionnaires, with close ended questions
Close ended questions used responses which have answer boxes or limited response catogories
Responses are inputted into data based and then statistically analyzed.
Experiments
People are divided into
Experimental group: receive treatment
Control group: receive no treatment
Any difference is due to treatment
Problems:
Ethics: cannot manipulate people
Hawthorne effect: being in an experiment can alter people’s behaviour
(2005: Education Canada)
Qualitative Research
Weber: because humans give meanings, the goal is to understand behaviour from the actors point of view, not predict it.
Thus we use qualitative research, such as:
Field Research
Case Studies
Archival Research
Content Analysis
Interviews
Focus Groups
Field Research
Researcher’s observe or enter a setting
They record everything going on in the setting
Start with a diagram of the observational space, the layout of the room, etc.
Record the décor, colors, etc. in order to capture the atmosphere in which you are doing your research
Observe interactions, behaviors, body language, facial expressions, etc.
Types of field research
Observation
Ethnographies
Case Studies
Provide a description of an individual
Case studies can discuss a person, or be an account of a model or business that failed or excelled
Case studies are done when a person or “thing” processes a unique trait or note worthy condition
Case studies involve learning about the history, current status and the story of the “individual” of interest.
Archival Research
Involves historical or “older” data that can be found in archives
Data is complied, and researchers analyze existing data to support or fail to support their ideas
Archival data can consist of statistics, surveys, or written records
Archival research can reveal the truth about past realities and occurrences
Content Analysis
Content analysis uses current or archival data
Looks at trends and the “content” of selections of written material to develop an understanding of current or past depictions of the trait/behavior/etc of interest
Content analysis illustrate how trends emerge and how the framework for social change is founded and carried through
Interviews
Can be either informal (on the street chatter) or formal (a sit-down face to face discussion)
Often begin with the collection of demographic information
Composed of either:
Structured or Close-Ended Questions ? where the respondent answers as series of short questions
Unstructured or Open-Ended Questions ? the respondent and interviewer talk freely about different topics and the interview structures flows according to the discussion had.
Unstructured interviews allow the researcher to pursue any direction the respondent chooses to take in their responses.
They allow vast flexibility
Face-to-face interviews allow the interviewer to observe body language and the setting which can provide valuable data on its own.
Focus Groups
Are similar to interviews, except they involve multiple persons being interviewed or questions at one time
Focus groups generate discussions about participants about the topic/questions of interest
10 Steps in Sociological Research
Select and define topic
Review the literature
Develop key questions to ask
Assess requirements for study
Consider ethical issues
Select a research methodology
Collect the data
Interpret the findings
State conclusions
Publish the findings
Research Ethics
Technically competent and fair-minded
Disclose findings in full
Protect the safety, rights and privacy of subjects
Obtain informed consent
Disclose all sources of funding
Demonstrate cultural sensitivity
RESPECT THE PERSONS YOU ARE RESEARCHING!!!
Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behaviour is too complex to predict precisely anyone’s actions.
The presence of a researcher can affect outcomes.
Social patterns change constantly. What is true in one time or place may not be true in another.
Being value-free is difficult.
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