GMAT Reasoning Test 15.docx

GMAT Reasoning Test 15 No. 5-1 to No. 5-3 No. 5-1 SECTION A A Marxist sociologist has argued that racism stems from the class struggle that is unique to the capitalist system—that racial prejudice is generated by capitalists as a means of controlling workers. His thesis works relatively well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the United States, but his definition of racial prejudice as “racially-based negative prejudgments against a group generally accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition,” can be interpreted as also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and the Jews in medieval Europe. However, since prejudice against these latter peoples was not inspired by capitalists, he has to reason that such antagonisms were not really based on race. He disposes thusly (albeit unconvincingly) of (to get rid of “how to dispose of toxic waste”) both the intolerance faced by Jews before the rise of capitalism and the early twentieth-century discrimination against Oriental people in California, which, inconveniently, was instigated by workers. 17. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following questions? (A) What accounts for the prejudice against the Jews in medieval Europe? (B) What conditions caused the discrimination against Oriental people in California in the early twentieth century? (C) Which groups are not in ethnic competition with each other in the United States? (D) What explanation did the Marxist sociologist give for the existence of racial prejudice??D? (E) What evidence did the Marxist sociologist provide to support his thesis? 18. The author considers the Marxist sociologist’s thesis about the origins of racial prejudice to be (A) unoriginal (B) unpersuasive (C) offensive (D) obscure?B? (E) speculative 19. It can be inferred from the passage that the Marxist sociologist would argue that in a noncapitalist society racial prejudice would be (A) pervasive (B) tolerated (C) ignored (D) forbidden?E? (E) nonexistent 20. According to the passage, the Marxist sociologist’s chain of reasoning required him to assert that prejudice toward Oriental people in California was (A) directed primarily against the Chinese (B) similar in origin to prejudice against the Jews (C) understood by Oriental people as ethnic competition (D) provoked by workers?E? (E) nonracial in character By 1950, the results of attempts to relate brain processes to mental experience appeared rather discouraging. Such variations in size, shape, chemistry, conduction speed, excitation threshold, and the like as had been demonstrated in nerve cells remained negligible in significance for any possible correlation with the manifold dimensions of mental experience. Near the turn of the century, it had been suggested by Hering that different modes of sensation, such as pain, taste, and color, might be correlated with the discharge of specific kinds of nervous energy. However, subsequently developed methods of recording and analyzing nerve potentials failed to reveal any such qualitative diversity. It was possible to demonstrate by other methods refined structural differences among neuron types; however, proof was lacking that the quality of the impulse or its condition was influenced by these differences, which seemed instead to influence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits. Although qualitative variance among nerve energies was never rigidly disproved, the doctrine was generally abandoned in favor of the opposing view, namely, that nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous in quality and are transmitted as “common currency” throughout the nervous system. According to this theory, it is not the quality of the sensory nerve (sensory nerve: ????) impulses that determines the diverse conscious sensations they produce, but rather the different areas of the brain into which they discharge, and there is some evidence for this view. In one experiment, when an electric stimulus was applied to a given sensory field of the cerebral cortex of a conscious human subject, it produced a sensation of the appropriate modality (modality: n.??, ??, ??) for that particular locus, that is, a visual sensation from the visual cortex, an auditory sensation from the auditory cortex, and so on. Other experiments revealed slight variations in the size, number, arrangement, and interconnection of the nerve cells, but as far as psychoneural correlations were concerned, the obvious similarities of these sensory fields to each other seemed much more remarkable than any of the minute differences. However, cortical locus, in itself, turned out to have little explanatory value. Studies showed that sensations as diverse as those of red, black, green, and white, or touch, cold, warmth, movement, pain, posture, and pressure apparently may arise through activation of the same cortical areas. What seemed to remain was some kind of differential patterning effects in the brain excitation: it is the difference in the central distribution of impulses that counts. In short, brain theory suggested a correlation between mental experience and the activity of relatively homogeneous nerve-cell units conducting essentially homogeneous impulses through homogeneous cerebral tissue. To match the multiple dimensions of mental experience psychologists could only point to a limitless variation in the spatiotemporal patterning of nerve impulses. 21. The author suggests that, by 1950, attempts to correlate mental experience with brain processes would probably have been viewed with (A) indignation (B) impatience (C) pessimism (D) indifference?C? (E) defiance 22. The author mentions “common currency” in line 26 primarily in order to emphasize the (A) lack of differentiation among nerve impulses in human beings (B) similarity of the sensations that all human beings experience (C) similarities in the views of scientists who have studied the human nervous system (D) continuous passage of nerve impulses through the nervous system?A? (E) recurrent questioning by scientists of an accepted explanation about the nervous system 23. The description in lines 32-38 of an experiment in which electric stimuli were applied to different sensory fields of the cerebral cortex tends to support the theory that (A) the simple presence of different cortical areas cannot account for the diversity of mental experience (B) variation in spatiotemporal patterning of nerve impulses correlates with variation in subjective experience (C) nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous and are relatively unaffected as they travel through the nervous system (D) the mental experiences produced by sensory nerve impulses are determined by the cortical area activated?D? (E) variation in neuron types affects the quality of nerve impulses 24. According to the passage, some evidence exists that the area of the cortex activated by a sensory stimulus determines which of the following? I. The nature of the nerve impulse II. The modality of the sensory experience III. Qualitative differences within a modality (A) II only (B) III only (C) I and II only (D) II and III only?A? (E) I, II and III 25. The passage can most accurately be described as a discussion concerning historical views of the (A) anatomy of the brain (B) manner in which nerve impulses are conducted (C) significance of different cortical areas in mental experience (D) mechanics of sense perception?E? (E) physiological correlates of mental experience 26. Which of the following best summarizes the author’s opinion of the suggestion that different areas of the brain determine perceptions produced by sensory nerve impulses? (A) It is a plausible explanation, but it has not been completely proved. (B) It is the best explanation of brain processes currently available. (C) It is disproved by the fact that the various areas of the brain are physiologically very similar. (D) There is some evidence to support it, but it fails to explain the diversity of mental experience.?D? (E) There is experimental evidence that confirms its correctness. 27. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following exhibit the LEAST qualitative variation? (A) Nerve cells (B) Nerve impulses (C) Cortical areas (D) Spatial patterns of nerve impulses?B? (E) Temporal patterns of nerve impulses SECTION B The transfer of heat and water vapor from the ocean to the air above it depends on a disequilibrium at the interface of the water and the air. Within about a millimeter of the water, air temperature is close to that of the surface water (surface water: n.[?]???), and the air is nearly saturated with water vapor. But the differences, however small, are crucial, and the disequilibrium is maintained by air near the surface mixing with air higher up, which is typically appreciably cooler and lower in water-vapor content. The air is mixed by means of turbulence that depends on the wind for its energy. As wind speed increases, so does turbulence, and thus the rate of heat and moisture transfer. Detailed understanding of this phenomenon awaits further study. An interacting—and complicating—phenomenon is wind-to-water transfer of momentum that occurs when waves are formed. When the wind makes waves, it transfers important amounts of energy—energy that is therefore not available to provide turbulence. 17. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) resolve a controversy (B) describe a phenomenon (C) outline a theory (D) confirm research findings?B? (E) classify various observations 18. According to the passage, wind over the ocean generally does which of the following? I. Causes relatively cool, dry air to come into proximity with the ocean surface. II. Maintains a steady rate of heat and moisture transfer between the ocean and the air. III. Causes frequent changes in the temperature of the water at the ocean’s surface. (A) I only (B) II only (C) I and II only (D) II and III only?A? (E) I, II, and III 19. It can be inferred from the passage that the author regards current knowledge about heat and moisture transfer from the ocean to air as (A) revolutionary (B) inconsequential (C) outdated (D) derivative?E? (E) incomplete 20. The passage suggests that if on a certain day the wind were to decrease until there was no wind at all which of the following would occur? (A) The air closest to the ocean surface would become saturated with water vapor. (B) The air closest to the ocean surface would be warmer than the water. (C) The amount of moisture in the air closest to the ocean surface would decrease. (D) The rate of heat and moisture transfer would increase.?A? (E) The air closest to the ocean would be at the same temperature as air higher up. Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act. Shakespeare’s Hamlet is not a tract about the behavior of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso’s painting Guernica primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way, the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form. This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. More generally, however, whether or not (whether or not: ???...?..., ??) a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing on its aesthetic worth. Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists would include these among the great works of music. On the other hand, Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled the rules and freed music from the stifling confines of convention. But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways. 21. The author considers a new theory that coherently relates diverse phenomena to one another to be the (A) basis for reaffirming a well-established scientific formulation (B) byproduct of an aesthetic experience (C) tool used by a scientist to discover a new particular (D) synthesis underlying a great work of art?E? (E) result of highly creative scientific activity 22. The author implies that Beethoven’s music was strikingly original because Beethoven (A) strove to outdo his predecessors by becoming the first composer to exploit limits (B) fundamentally changed the musical forms of his predecessors by adopting a richly inventive strategy (C) embellished and interwove the melodies of several of the great composers who preceded him (D) manipulated the established conventions of musical composition in a highly innovative fashion?D? (E) attempted to create the illusion of having transcended the musical forms of his predecessors 23. The passage states that the operas of the Florentine Camerata are (A) unjustifiably ignored by musicologists (B) not generally considered to be of high aesthetic value even though they are important in the history of music (C) among those works in which popular historical themes were portrayed in a musical production (D) often inappropriately cited as examples of musical works in which a new principle of organization was introduced?B? (E) minor exceptions to the well-established generalization that the aesthetic worth of a composition determines its importance in the history of music 24. The passage supplies information for answering all of the following questions EXCEPT: (A) Has unusual creative activity been characterized as revolutionary? (B) Did Beethoven work within a musical tradition that also included Handel and Bach? (C) Is Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro an example of a creative work that transcended limits? (D) Who besides Monteverdi wrote music that the author would consider to embody new principles of organization and to be of high aesthetic value??D? (E) Does anyone claim that the goal of extraordinary creative activity in the arts differs from that of extraordinary creative activity in the sciences? 25. The author regards the idea that all highly creative artistic activity transcends limits with (A) deep skepticism (B) strong indignation (C) marked indifference (D) moderate amusement?A? (E) sharp derision 26. The author implies that an innovative scientific contribution is one that (A) is cited with high frequency in the publications of other scientists (B) is accepted immediately by the scientific community (C) does not relegate particulars to the role of data (D) presents the discovery of a new scientific fact?E? (E) introduces a new valid generalization 27. Which of the following statements would most logically concluded the last paragraph of the passage? (A) Unlike Beethoven, however, even the greatest of modern composers, such as Stravinsky, did not transcend existing musical forms. (B) In similar fashion, existing musical forms were even further exploited by the next generation of great European composers. (C) Thus, many of the great composers displayed the same combination of talents exhibited by Monteverdi. (D) By contrast, the view that creativity in the arts exploits but does not transcend limits is supported in the field of literature.?B? (E) Actually, Beethoven’s most original works were largely unappreciated at the time that they were first performed. No. 5-2 SECTION A Visual recognition involves storing and retrieving memories. Neural activity, triggered by the eye, forms an image in the brain’s memory system that constitutes an internal representation of the viewed object. When an object is encountered again, it is matched with its internal representation and thereby recognized. Controversy surrounds the question of whether recognition is a parallel, one-step process or a serial, step-by-step one. Psychologists of the Gestalt school maintain that objects are recognized as wholes in a parallel procedure: the internal representation is matched with the retinal image (retinal image: ????) in a single operation. Other psychologists have proposed that internal representation features are matched serially with an object’s features. Although some experiments show that, as an object becomes familiar, its internal representation becomes more holistic and the recognition process correspondingly more parallel, the weight of evidence seems to support the serial hypothesis, at least for objects that are not notably simple and familiar. 17. The author is primarily concerned with (A) explaining how the brain receives images (B) synthesizing hypotheses of visual recognition (C) examining the evidence supporting the serial recognition hypothesis (D) discussing visual recognition and some hypotheses proposed to explain it?D? (E) reporting on recent experiments dealing with memory systems and their relationship to neural activity 18. According to the passage, Gestalt psychologists make which of the following suppositions about visual recognition? I. A retinal image is in exactly the same forms as its internal representation. II. An object is recognized as a whole without any need for analysis into component parts. III. The matching of an object with its internal representation occurs in only one step. (A) II only (B) III only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only?D? (E) I, II, and III 19. It can be inferred from the passage that the matching process in visual recognition is (A) not a neural activity (B) not possible when an object is viewed for the very first time (C) not possible if a feature of a familiar object is changed in some way (D) only possible when a retinal image is received in the brain as a unitary whole?B? (E) now fully understood as a combination of the serial and parallel processes 20. It terms of its tone and form, the passage can best be characterized as (A) a biased exposition (B) a speculative study (C) a dispassionate presentation (D) an indignant denial?C? (E) a dogmatic explanation In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is Johann Bachofen’s 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece. Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical fact, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs—societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek “historian” of the fifth century B. C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle. Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact—real Amazonian societies—but rather to offer “moral lessons” on the supposed outcome of women’s rule in their own society. The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antitheses of ordinary Greek practices. Thus, I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders was didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the male-dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. The sources that will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world are such social documents as gravestones, wills, and marriage contracts. Studies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources, especially myths. 21. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) compare competing new approaches to understanding the role of women in ancient societies (B) investigate the ramifications of Bachofen’s theory about the dominance of women in ancient societies (C) explain the burgeoning interest among historians in determining the actual status of women in various societies (D) analyze the nature of Amazonian society and uncover similarities between it and the Greek world?E? (E) criticize the value of ancient myths in determining the status of women in ancient societies 22. All of the following are stated by the author as problems connected with the sources for knowledge of premodern cultures EXCEPT: (A) partial completeness (B) restricted accessibility (C) difficulty of interpretation (D) limited quantity?B? (E) tendency toward contradiction 23. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the myths recorded by the ancient Greeks? I. They sometimes included portrayals of women holding positions of power. II. They sometimes contained elaborate explanations of inheritance customs. III. They comprise almost all of the material available to historians about ancient Greece. (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only?A? (E) I, II, and III 24. Which of the following is presented in the passage as evidence supporting the author’s view of the ancient Greeks’ descriptions of the Amazons? (A) The requirement that Sauromatae women kill in battle before marrying (B) The failure of historians to verify that women were ever governors of ancient societies (C) The classing of Amazons with giants and centaurs (D) The well-established unreliability of Herodotus as a source of information about ancient societies?C? (E) The recent discovery of ancient societies with matrilineal customs 25. It can be inferred from the passage that the probable reactions of many males in ancient Greece to the idea of a society ruled by women could best characterized as (A) confused and dismayed (B) wary and hostile (C) cynical and disinterested (D) curious but fearful?B? (E) excited but anxious 26. The author suggests that the main reason for the persisting influence of Bachofen’s work is that (A) feminists have shown little interest in ancient societies (B) Bachofen’s knowledge of Amazonian culture is unparalleled (C) reliable information about the ancient world is difficult to acquire (D) ancient societies show the best evidence of women in positions of power?C? (E) historians have been primarily interested in the modern period 27. The author’s attitude toward Bachofen’s treatise is best described as one of (A) qualified approval (B) profound ambivalence (C) studied neutrality (D) pointed disagreement?D? (E) unmitigated hostility SECTION B Initially the Vinaver theory that Malory’s eight romances, once thought to be fundamentally unified, were in fact eight independent works produced both a sense of relief and an unpleasant shock. Vinaver’s theory comfortably explained away the apparent contradictions of chronology and made each romance independently satisfying. It was, however, disagreeable to find that what had been thought of as one book was now eight books. Part of this response was the natural reaction to the disturbance of set ideas. Nevertheless, even now, after lengthy consideration of the theory’s refined but legitimate observations, one cannot avoid the conclusion that the eight romances are only one work. It is not quite a matter of disagreeing with the theory of independence, but of rejecting its implications: that the romances may be taken in any or no particular order, that they have no cumulative effect, and that they are as separate as the works of a modern novelist. 17. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the validity of a hypothesis (B) summarize a system of general principles (C) propose guidelines for future argument (D) stipulate conditions for acceptance of an interpretation?A? (E) deny accusations about an apparent contradiction 18. It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes which of the following about Malory’s works? I. There are meaningful links between and among the romances. II. The subtleties of the romances are obscured when they are taken as one work. III. Any contradictions in chronology among the romances are less important than their overall unity. (A) I only (B) III only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only?C? (E) I, II, and III 19. The author of the passage concedes which of the following about the Vinaver theory? (A) It gives a clearer understanding of the unity of Malory’s romances. (B) It demonstrates the irrationality of considering Malory’s romances to be unified. (C) It establishes acceptable links between Malory’s romances and modern novels. (D) It unifies earlier and later theories concerning the chronology of Malory’s romances.?E? (E) It makes valid and subtle comments about Malory’s romances. 20. It can be inferred from the passage that, in evaluating the Vinaver theory, some critics were (A) frequently misled by the inconsistencies in Malory’s work (B) initially biased by previous interpretations of Malory’s work (C) conceptually displeased by the general interpretation that Vinaver rejected (D) generally in agreement with Vinaver’s comparisons between Malory and modern novelists?B? (E) originally skeptical about Vinaver’s early conclusions with respect to modern novels We can distinguish three different realms of matter, three levels on the quantum ladder. The first is the atomic realm, which includes the world of atoms, their interactions, and the structures that are formed by them, such as molecules, liquids and solids, and gases and plasmas. This realm includes all the phenomena of atomic physics, chemistry, and, in a certain sense, biology. The energy exchanges taking place in this realm are of a relatively low order. If these exchanges are below one electron volt, such as in the collisions between molecules of the air in a room, then atoms and molecules can be regarded as elementary particles. That is, they have “conditional elementarity” because they keep their identity and do not change in any collisions or in other processes at these low energy exchanges. If one goes to higher energy exchanges, say 104 electron volts, then atoms and molecules will decompose into nuclei and electrons; at this level, the latter particles must be considered as elementary. We find examples of structures and processes of this first rung of the quantum ladder on Earth, on planets, and on the surfaces of stars. The next rung is the nuclear realm. Here the energy exchanges are much higher, on the order of millions of electron volts. As long as we are dealing with phenomena in the atomic realm, such amounts of energy are unavailable, and most nuclei are inert: they do not change. However, if one applies energies of millions of electron volts, nuclear reactions, fission and fusion, and the processes of radioactivity occur; our elementary particles then are protons, neutrons, and electrons. In addition, nuclear processes produce neutrinos, particles that have no detectable mass or charge. In the universe, energies at this level are available in the centers of stars and in star explosions. Indeed, the energy radiated by the stars is produced by nuclear reactions. The natural radioactivity we find on Earth is the long-lived remnant of the time when now-earthly matter was expelled into space by a major stellar explosion. The third rung of the quantum ladder is the subnuclear realm. Here we are dealing with energy exchanges of many billions of electron volts. We encounter excited nucleons, new types of particles such as mesons, heavy electrons, quarks, and gluons, and also antimatter in large quantities. The gluons are the quanta, or smallest units, of the force (the strong force) that keeps the quarks together. As long as we are dealing with the atomic or nuclear realm, these new types of particles do not occur and the nucleons remain inert. But at subnuclear energy levels, the nucleons and mesons appear to be composed of quarks, so that the quarks and gluons figure as (figure as: ??...??) elementary particles. 21. The primary topic of the passage is which of the following? (A) The interaction of the realms on the quantum ladder (B) Atomic structures found on Earth, on other planets, and on the surfaces of stars (C) Levels of energy that are released in nuclear reactions on Earth and in stars (D) Particles and processes found in the atomic, nuclear, and subnuclear realms?D? (E) New types of particles occurring in the atomic realm 22. According to the passage, radioactivity that occurs naturally on Earth is the result of (A) the production of particles that have no detectable mass or electric charge (B) high energy exchanges on the nuclear level that occurred in an ancient explosion in a star (C) processes that occur in the center of the Sun, which emits radiation to the Earth (D) phenomena in the atomic realm that cause atoms and molecules to decompose into nuclei and electrons?B? (E) high-voltage discharges of electricity that took place in the atmosphere of the Earth shortly after the Earth was formed 23. The author organizes the passage by (A) making distinctions between two groups of particles, those that are elementary and those that are composite (B) explaining three methods of transferring energy to atoms and to the smaller particles that constitute atoms (C) describing several levels of processes, increasing in energy, and corresponding sets of particles, generally decreasing in size (D) putting forth an argument concerning energy levels and then conceding that several qualifications of that argument are necessary?C? (E) making several successive refinements of a definition of elementarity on the basis of several groups of experimental results 24. According to the passage, which of the following can be found in the atomic realm? (A) More than one level of energy exchange (B) Exactly one elementary particle (C) Exactly three kinds of atomic structures (D) Three levels on the quantum ladder?A? (E) No particles smaller than atoms 25. According to the author, gluons are not (A) considered to be detectable (B) produced in nuclear reactions (C) encountered in subnuclear energy exchanges (D) related to the strong force?B? (E) found to be conditionally elementary 26. At a higher energy level than the subnuclear level described, if such a higher level exists, it can be expected on the basis of the information in the passage that there would probably be (A) excited nucleons (B) elementary mesons (C) a kind of particle without detectable mass or charge (D) exchanges of energy on the order of millions of electron volts?E? (E) another set of elementary particles 27. The passage speaks of particles as having conditional elementarity if they (A) remain unchanged at given level of energy exchange (B) cannot be decomposed into smaller constituents (C) are mathematically simpler than some other set of particles (D) release energy at a low level in collisions?A? (E) belong to the nuclear level on the quantum ladder No. 5-3 SECTION A The belief that art originates in intuitive rather than rational faculties was worked out historically and philosophically in the somewhat wearisome volumes of Benedetto Croce, who is usually considered the originator of a new aesthetic. Croce was, in fact, expressing a very old idea. Long before the Romantics stressed intuition and self-expression, the frenzy of inspiration was regarded as fundamental to art, but philosophers had always assumed it must be controlled by law and by the intellectual power of putting things into harmonious order. This general philosophic concept of art was supported by technical necessities. It was necessary to master certain laws and to use intellect in order to build Gothic cathedrals, or set up the stained glass windows of Chartres. When this bracing element of craftsmanship ceased to dominate artists’ outlook, new technical elements had to be adopted to maintain the intellectual element in art. Such were linear perspective (linear perspective: ?????) and anatomy. 17. The passage suggests that which of the following would most likely have occurred if linear perspective and anatomy had not come to influence artistic endeavor? (A) The craftsmanship that shaped Gothic architecture would have continued to dominate artists’ outlooks. (B) Some other technical elements would have been adopted to discipline artistic inspiration. (C) Intellectual control over artistic inspiration would not have influenced painting as it did architecture. (D) The role of intuitive inspiration would not have remained fundamental to theories of artistic creation.?B? (E) The assumptions of aesthetic philosophers before Croce would have been invalidated. 18. The passage supplies information for answering which of the following questions? (A) Does Romantic art exhibit the triumph of intuition over intellect? (B) Did an emphasis on linear perspective and anatomy dominate Romantic art? (C) Are the intellectual and intuitive faculties harmoniously balanced in post-Romantic art? (D) Are the effects of the rational control of artistic inspiration evident in the great works of pre-Romantic eras??D? (E) Was the artistic craftsmanship displayed in Gothic cathedrals also an element in paintings of this period? 19. The passage implies that which of the following was a traditional assumption of aesthetic philosophers? (A) Intellectual elements in art exert a necessary control over artistic inspiration. (B) Architecture has never again reached the artistic greatness of the Gothic cathedrals. (C) Aesthetic philosophy is determined by the technical necessities of art. (D) Artistic craftsmanship is more important in architectural art than in pictorial art.?A? (E) Paintings lacked the intellectual element before the invention of linear perspective and anatomy. 20. The author mentions “linear perspective and anatomy” in the last sentence in order to do which of the following? (A) Expand his argument to include painting as well as architecture (B) Indicate his disagreement with Croce’s theory of the origins of art (C) Support his point that rational order of some kind has often seemed to discipline artistic inspiration (D) Explain the rational elements in Gothic painting that corresponded to craftsmanship in Gothic architecture?C? (E) Show the increasing sophistication of artists after the Gothic period (The passage below is drawn from an article published in 1962.) Computer programmers often remark that computing machines, with a perfect lack of discrimination, will do any foolish thing they are told to do. The reason for this lies, of course, in the narrow fixation of the computing machine’s “intelligence” on the details of its own perceptions—its inability to be guided by any large context. In a psychological description of the computer intelligence, three related adjectives come to mind: single-minded, literal-minded, and simpleminded. Recognizing this, we should at the same time recognize that this single-mindedness, literal-mindedness, and simplemindedness also characterizes theoretical mathematics, though to a lesser extent. Since science tries to deal with reality, even the most precise sciences normally work with more or less imperfectly understood approximations toward which scientists must maintain an appropriate skepticism. Thus, for instance, it may come as a shock to mathematicians to learn that the Schrodinger equation (Schrodinger equation: [?]?????) for the hydrogen atom is not a literally correct description of this atom, but only an approximation to a somewhat more correct equation taking account of spin, magnetic dipole (magnetic dipole: ????), and relativistic effects; and that this corrected equation is itself only an imperfect approximation to an infinite set of quantum field-theoretical equations. Physicists, looking at the original Schrodinger equation, learn to sense in it the presence of many invisible terms in addition to the differential terms visible, and this sense inspires an entirely appropriate disregard for the purely technical features of the equation. This very healthy skepticism is foreign to the mathematical approach. Mathematics must deal with well-defined situations. Thus, mathematicians depend on an intellectual effort outside of mathematics for the crucial specification of the approximation that mathematics is to take literally. Give mathematicians a situation that is the least bit ill-defined, and they will make it well-defined, perhaps appropriately, but perhaps inappropriately. In some cases, the mathematicians’ literal-mindedness may have unfortunate consequences. The mathematicians turn the scientists’ theoretical assumptions, that is, their convenient points of analytical emphasis, into axioms, and then take these axioms literally. This brings the danger that they may also persuade the scientists to take these axioms literally. The question, central to the scientific investigation but intensely disturbing in the mathematical context—what happens if the axioms are relaxed?—is thereby ignored. The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumptions on which it is based are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions. 21. The author discusses computing machines in the first paragraph primarily in order to do which of the following? (A) Indicate the dangers inherent in relying to a great extent on machines (B) Illustrate his views about the approach of mathematicians to problem solving (C) Compare the work of mathematicians with that of computer programmers (D) Provide one definition of intelligence?B? (E) Emphasize the importance of computers in modern technological society 22. According to the passage, scientists are skeptical toward their equations because scientists (A) work to explain real, rather than theoretical or simplified, situations (B) know that well-defined problems are often the most difficult to solve (C) are unable to express their data in terms of multiple variables (D) are unwilling to relax the axioms they have developed?A? (E) are unable to accept mathematical explanations of natural phenomena 23. It can be inferred from the passage that scientists make which of the following assumptions about scientific arguments? (A) The literal truth of the arguments can be made clear only in a mathematical context. (B) The arguments necessarily ignore the central question of scientific investigation. (C) The arguments probably will be convincing only to other scientists. (D) The conclusions of the arguments do not necessarily follow from their premises.?E? (E) The premises on which the arguments are based may change. 24. According to the passage, mathematicians present a danger to scientists for which of the following reasons? (A) Mathematicians may provide theories that are incompatible with those already developed by scientists. (B) Mathematicians may define situation in a way that is incomprehensible to scientists. (C) Mathematicians may convince scientists that theoretical assumptions are facts. (D) Scientists may come to believe that axiomatic statements are untrue.?C? (E) Scientists may begin to provide arguments that are convincing but imprecise. 25. The author suggests that the approach of physicists to solving scientific problems is which of the following? (A) Practical for scientific purposes (B) Detrimental to scientific progress (C) Unimportant in most situations (D) Expedient, but of little long-term value?A? (E) Effective, but rarely recognized as such 26. The author suggests that a mathematician asked to solve a problem in an ill-defined situation would first attempt to do which of the following? (A) Identify an analogous situation (B) Simplify and define the situation (C) Vary the underlying assumptions of a description of the situation (D) Determine what use would be made of the solution provided?B? (E) Evaluate the theoretical assumptions that might explain the situation 27. The author implies that scientists develop a healthy skepticism because they are aware that (A) mathematicians are better able to solve problems than are scientists (B) changes in axiomatic propositions will inevitably undermine scientific arguments (C) well-defined situations are necessary for the design of reliable experiments (D) mathematical solutions can rarely be applied to real problems?E? (E) some factors in most situations must remain unknown SECTION B In eighteenth-century France and England, reformers rallied around egalitarian ideals, but few reformers advocated higher education for women. Although the public decried women’s lack of education, it did not encourage learning for its own sake for women. In spite of the general prejudice against learned women, there was one place where women could exhibit their erudition: the literary salon. Many writers have defined the woman’s role in the salon as that of an intelligent hostess, but the salon had more than a social function for women. It was an informal university, too, where women exchanged ideas with educated persons, read their own works and heard those of others, and received and gave criticism. In the 1750’s, when salons were firmly established in France, some English women, who called themselves “Bluestocking,” followed the example of the salonnieres (French salon hostesses) and formed their own salons. Most Bluestockings did not wish to mirror the salonnieres; they simply desired to adapt a proven formula to their own purpose—the elevation of women’s status through moral and intellectual training. Differences in social orientation and background can account perhaps for differences in the nature of French and English salons. The French salon incorporated aristocratic attitudes that exalted courtly pleasure and emphasized artistic accomplishments. The English Bluestockings, originating from a more modest background, emphasized learning and work over pleasure. Accustomed to the regimented life of court circles, salonnieres tended toward formality in their salons. The English women, though somewhat puritanical, were more casual in their approach. At first, the Bluestockings did imitate the salonnieres by including men in their circles. However, as they gained cohesion, the Bluestockings came to regard themselves as a women’s group and to possess a sense of female solidarity lacking in the salonnieres, who remained isolated from one another by the primacy each held in her own salon. In an atmosphere of mutual support, the Bluestockings went beyond the salon experience. They traveled, studied, worked, wrote for publication, and by their activities challenged the stereotype of the passive woman. Although the salonnieres were aware of sexual inequality, the narrow boundaries of their world kept their intellectual pursuits within conventional limits. Many salonnieres, in fact, camouflaged their nontraditional activities behind the role of hostess and deferred to men in public (in public: adv.??, ???, ???). Though the Bluestockings were trailblazers when compared with the salonnieres, they were not feminists. They were too traditional, too hemmed in (hem in: v.??) by their generation to demand social and political rights. Nonetheless, in their desire for education, their willingness to go beyond (go beyond: v.??) the confines of the salon in pursuing their interests, and their championing of unity among women, the Bluestockings began the process of questioning women’s role in society. 17. Which of the following best states the central idea of the passage? (A) The establishment of literary salons was a response to reformers’ demands for social rights for women. (B) Literary salons were originally intended to be a meeting ground for intellectuals of both sexes, but eventually became social gatherings with little educational value. (C) In England, as in France, the general prejudice against higher education for women limited women’s function in literary salons to a primarily social one. (D) The literary salons provided a sounding board for French and English women who called for access to all the educational institutions in their societies on an equal basis with men.?E? (E) For women, who did not have access to higher education as men did, literary salons provided an alternate route to learning and a challenge to some of society’s basic assumptions about women. 18. According to the passage, a significant distinction between the salonnieres and Bluestockings was in the way each group regarded which of the following? (A) The value of acquiring knowledge (B) The role of pleasure in the activities of the literary salon (C) The desirability of a complete break with societal traditions (D) The inclusion of women of different backgrounds in the salons?B? (E) The attainment of full social and political equality with men 19. The author refers to differences in social background between salonnieres and Bluestockings in order to do which of the following? (A) Criticize the view that their choices of activities were significantly influenced by male salon members (B) Discuss the reasons why literary salons in France were established before those in England (C) Question the importance of the Bluestockings in shaping public attitudes toward educated women (D) Refute the argument that the French salons had little influence over the direction the English salons took?E? (E) Explain the differences in atmosphere and style in their salons 20. Which of the following statements is most compatible with the principles of the salonnieres as described in the passage? (A) Women should aspire to be not only educated but independent as well. (B) The duty of the educated women is to provide an active political model for less educated women. (C) Devotion to pleasure and art is justified in itself. (D) Substance, rather than form, is the most important consideration in holding a literary salon.?C? (E) Men should be excluded from groups of women’s rights supporters. 21. The passage suggests that the Bluestockings might have had a more significant impact on society if it had not been for which of the following? (A) Competitiveness among their salons (B) Their emphasis on individualism (C) The limited scope of their activities (D) Their acceptance of the French salon as a model for their own salons?E? (E) Their unwillingness to defy aggressively the conventions of their age 22. Which of the following could best be considered a twentieth-century counterpart of an eighteenth century literary salon as it is described in the passage? (A) A social sorority (B) A community center (C) A lecture course on art (D) A humanities study group?D? (E) An association of moral reformers 23. To an assertion that Bluestockings were feminists, the author would most probably respond with which of the following? (A) Admitted uncertainty (B) Qualified disagreement (C) Unquestioning approval (D) Complete indifference?B? (E) Strong disparagement 24. Which of the following titles best describes the content of the passage? (A) Eighteenth-Century Egalitarianism (B) Feminists of the Eighteenth Century (C) Eighteenth-Century Precursors of Feminism (D) Intellectual Life in the Eighteenth Century?C? (E) Female Education Reform in the Eighteenth Century When the same parameters and quantitative theory are used to analyze both termite colonies and troops of rhesus macaques, we will have a unified science of sociobiology. Can this ever really happen? As my own studies have advanced, I have been increasingly impressed with the functional similarities between insect and vertebrate societies and less so with the structural differences that seem, at first glance (at first glance: ??), to constitute such an immense gulf between them. Consider for a moment (for a moment: ???, ??) termites and macaques. Both form cooperative groups that occupy territories. In both kinds of society there is a well-marked division of labor (division of labor: n. ??????). Members of both groups communicate to each other hunger, alarm, hostility, caste status or rank, and reproductive status. From the specialist’s point of view, this comparison may at first seem facile—or worse. But it is out of such deliberate oversimplification that the beginnings of a general theory are made. 25. Which of the following best summarizes the author’s main point? (A) Oversimplified comparisons of animal societies could diminish the likelihood of developing a unified science of sociobiology. (B) Understanding the ways in which animals as different as termites and rhesus macaques resemble each other requires train in both biology and sociology. (C) Most animals organize themselves into societies that exhibit patterns of group behavior similar to those of human societies. (D) Animals as different as termites and rhesus macaques follow certain similar and predictable patterns of behavior.?E? (E) A study of the similarities between insect and vertebrate societies could provide the basis for a unified science of sociobiology. 26. The author’s attitude toward the possibility of a unified theory in sociobiology is best described as which of the following? (A) Guarded optimism (B) Unqualified enthusiasm (C) Objective indifference (D) Resignation?A? (E) Dissatisfaction 27. In discussing insect and vertebrate societies, the author suggests which of the following? (A) A distinguishing characteristic of most insect and vertebrate societies is a well-marked division of labor. (B) The caste structure of insect societies is similar to that of vertebrate societies. (C) Most insect and vertebrate societies form cooperative groups in order to occupy territory. (D) The means of communication among members of insect societies is similar to that among members of vertebrate societies.?E? (E) There are significant structural differences between insect and vertebrate societies. ANSWERS No. 5-1 SECTION A D B E E C A D A E D B SECTION B B A E A E D B D A E B No. 5-2 SECTION A D D B C E B A C B C D SECTION B A C E B D B C A B E A No. 5-3 SECTION A B D A C B A E C A B E SECTION B E B E C E D B C E A E