Transcript
Malika Wood
Charles Sauders
World History Civilization
Chapter 23 Packet
The Beginning of The Twentieth-Century Crisis: War and Revolution Packet
1.Triple Alliance and Triple Entente-the political and military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, the political and military alliance between Russia, France, and Great Britain.
2. Archduke Francis Ferdinand- the Austrian nobility assassinated in 1914 by a Bosnian activist working for the Black Hand; Austrian government suspected Serbian involvement; led the immediate outbreak of World War I.
3. Conscription-compulsory enlistment for state service, typically into the armed forces; led to the growth of large mass armies in Europe as well as a rise in militarism.
4. Serbia and the Black Hand-the Serbian terrorist organization dedicated to the creation of a pan-Slavic kingdom; involved in the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand that led to the immediate outbreak of World War I.
5. the Schlieffen Plan-German war plans for a minimal troop deployment against Russia while most of the German army would make a rapid invasion of western France by way of neutral Belgium; after the planned quick defeat of the French, the German army expected to redeploy to the east against Russia.
6. the battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes-two battles at the beginning of the war in which the Russian army moves into eastern Germany but are decisively defeated; establish the military reputations of the German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff; Russians no longer a threat to German territory.
7.Gallipoli and Verdun-offensive by the Germans and French respectively where the senselessness of trench warfare became obvious with elusive, unattainable, and dangerous "breakthroughs”, the British Empire attempted to open a Balkan front by landing forces here, southwest of Constantinople in April 1915; disastrous campaign, British withdrawal (also because of Bulgaria's entering on the side of Central Powers.
8. “no man’s land” and the trenches-the area in trench warfare separating the two opposing military forces where each live-in holes in the ground; crossed when going on the offensive.
9. Togoland, Cameroon, South West Africa, Marshall, Mariana, and Caroline Islands-Togoland was a German protectorate in West Africa from 1884 to 1914, encompassing what is now the nation of Togo and most of what is now the Volta Region of Ghana, approximately 77,355 km2 (29,867 sq. mi) in size.[1][2] The colony was established during the period generally known as the "Scramble for Africa". The colony was established in 1884 in part of what was then the Slave Coastand was gradually extended inland. At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 the colony was drawn into the conflict. It was invaded and quickly overrun by British and French forces during the Togoland campaign and placed under military rule. In 1916 the territory was divided into separate British and French administrative zones, and this was formalized in 1922 with the creation of British Togoland and French Togoland. In the Gulf of Guinea, the Cameroon line consists of six offshore volcanic swells that have formed islands or seamounts. From the southwest to the northeast the island groups are Pagalu (or Annobón), São Tomé, Príncipe and Bioko. Two large seamounts lie between São Tomé and Príncipe, and between Principe and Bioko. In the Atlantic seaboard, the largest islands are Cape Verde off the coast of West Africa and Sao Tome and Principe off the southwestern seaboard. In the Atlantic Ocean, the island of Malabo and other smaller islands of Equatorial Guinea are also notable. The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshallese: Aolep?n Aor?kin M?aje?),[note 1] is an island country located near the equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia. The country's population of 53,158 people (at the 2011 Census[5]) is spread out over 29 coral atolls,[2]comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets. The Mariana Islands (also the Marianas) are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fifteen mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the western North Pacific Ocean, between the 12th and 21st parallels north and along the 145th meridian east. They lie south-southeast of Japan, west-southwest of Hawaii, north of New Guinea and east of the Philippines, demarcating the Philippine Sea's eastern limit. They are found in the northern part of the western Oceanic sub-region of Micronesia, and are politically divided into two jurisdictions of the United States: the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and, at the southern end of the chain, the territory of Guam. The Caroline Islands (or the Carolines) are a widely scattered archipelago of tiny islands in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, to the north of New Guinea. Politically they are divided between the Federated States of Micronesia in the eastern part of the group, and Palauat the extreme western end. Historically, this area was also called Nuevas Filipinas or New Philippines[1] as they were part of the Spanish East Indies and governed from Manila in the Philippines.
10. “Total War”-the term used to describe warfare that affects the lives of all citizens, no matter how remote they might be from the battlefields; in WWI, leads to increased centralization of government powers, economic regimentation, and propaganda.
11. The Lusitania-the British passenger liner sunk by the German navy on May 7, 1915; because more than one hundred Americans lost their lives, American government forced German government to modify/suspend its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare.
12. Woodrow Wilson-the 1918 American president's outline that he believed justified the enormous military struggle as being fought for a moral cause, Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was an American statesman and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and as Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913, before winning the 1912 presidential election. As president, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933.[1] He also led the United States during World War I, establishing an activist foreign policy known as "Wilsonianism." He was one of the three key leaders at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, where he championed a new League of Nations, but he was unable to win Senate approval for U.S. participation in the League.
13.Defense of the realm act (DORA)-the policy passed by British Parliament at the very beginning of the war which allowed the public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors; later extended to authorize public officials to censor newspapers by deleting objectionable material and even to suspend newspaper publication
14.Georges Clemenceau- the leader of the French war government, in place by the end of 1917, who established clear civilian control of a total war government.
15. David Lloyd George- David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor,[a] OM, PC (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945), was a British statesman of the Liberal Party. As Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908–1915), Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government (1916–22), during and immediately after the First World War. He was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers.
16. Nicholas II and Alexandra-the royal tsarist couple of Russia prior to the Revolution of 1917; increasingly insulated from current events
17. Rasputin-the Siberian peasant regarded by the Russian tsarina Alexandra as a holy man because he alone seemed able to stop the bleeding of her hemophiliac son, Alexis; greatly influenced the tsar couple and interfered in government affairs; assassinated at the end of 1916 by anti-tsarist (basically all of Russia lol) forces.
18. March Revolution-the March 1917 series of strikes in the capital city of Russia, Petrograd; led by working-class women protesting bread rationing, fuel shortages, and the autocracy; troops join demonstrators, leads to tsar Nicholas II's abdication and a provisional government.
19. Alexander Kerensky and the Provisional Government- the moderate socialist prime minister of the provisional government of Russia after the overthrow of tsar Nicholas II; feeble ruler who sought the Petrograd soviets for assistance, displaying the weakness of the provisional government to the Bolsheviks
20. The Duma and the soviets-councils of workers' and soldiers' deputies who represented the more radical interests of the lower classes and were largely composed of socialists of various kinds (including the Marxist Social Democratic Party)
21. “Peace, Land, Bread” and “All Power to the Soviets”-the Bolshevik slogan the summed up the desires of the group: an end to war, the redistribution of all land to the peasants, the termination of bread rationing (and solution to food shortages), the transfer of factories and industries form capitalists to committees of workers, and the relegation of government power from the provisional government to the soviets.
22. the “sealed train”- A sealed train is one that travels internationally under customs and/or immigration seal, without its contents legally recognized as entering or leaving the nations traversed between the beginning and end of the journey or subject to any otherwise applicable taxes. The most notable use of a sealed train was the return of Vladimir Lenin to Russia from exile in Switzerland in 1917, but the practice was used a number of times throughout the 20th century to allow the migration or transport of controversial individuals or peoples. For instance, sealed trains were used for repatriation of combatants in the Spanish Civil War, Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany to the United States, and expulsion of East German refugees to West Germany.
23. V.I. Lenin-the leader of the Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party; author of the "April Theses"; orchestrated the soviet takeover of the provisional government
24. the Bolshevik Party-a small faction of Russian Social Democrats under the leadership of V. I. Lenin; a party dedicated to a violent revolution that would destroy the capitalist system.
25. the red army and “revolutionary terror”/cheka-the pro-Bolshevik forces who fought against the White (anti-Bolshevik) forces in the Russian Civil War of 1918-1921, the new Red secret police in Russia for the Communists who instituted the Red Terror, the period where the Communist secret police (Cheka) executed thousands of counter-revolutionaries with little or no evidence of their guilt; aimed to destroy all opponents of the new regime; added an element of fear to the Bolshevik regime
26.”war communism”-the Russian Communists policy to ensure regular supplies for the Red Army; included the nationalization of banks and most industries, the forcible requisition of grain from peasants, and the centralization of state administration under Bolshevik control.
27.Treaty of Brest Litovsk-the 1918 treaty that gave up Russia's eastern Poland, Ukraine, Finland, and the Baltic provinces to Germany; effort by Lenin to provide the peace he promised.
28.Paris Peace Conference-the January 1919 gathering of delegations of the victorious Allied nations in Paris to conclude a final settlement of WWI; five separate treaties with the defeated nations of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire (the most important being the Versailles Treaty with Germany); led by David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of the United States
29. Treaty of Versailles-the treaty with Germany at the Paris Peace Conference, signed 28 June 1919; included a War Guilt Clause, reparations, demilitarization, and territorial losses for Germany, Treaty of Versailles, peace document signed at the end of World War I by the Allied and associated powers and by Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, France, on June 28, 1919; it took force on January 10, 1920.
30. Article 231/” War guilt clause”-the so-called War Guilt Clause of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which declared Germany (and Austria) responsible for starting WWI and ordered Germany to pay reparations for all the damage to which the Allied governments and their people were subjected The clause in the Treaty of Versailles that declared Germany (and Austria) responsible for starting WWI and ordered Germany to pay reparations for the damage the Allies had suffered because of the war.
31.Armenian Genocide-using the excuse of a rebellion by the Armenian minority and their supposed collaboration with the Russians, the Turkish government's systematic killing of Armenian men and expulsion of women and children; killed more than one million over period of 1915-1917, 32. Ottoman Empire-The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I. As sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (today named Istanbul) in 1453, the state grew into a mighty empire. The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat by the Allies in World War I.
33. the League of Nations and Mandates- the international organization advocated by American President Woodrow Wilson to prevent future wars; lack of enforcement made unusual, a system of mandates whereby a nation officially administers a territory on behalf of the League of Nations; contradicted the Paris Peace Conference's principle of national self-determination; France receives Lebanon and Syria, Britain receives Iraq and Palestine.
34. Runaway inflation and the Ruhr-During a period between 1918 and January 1924, the German mark suffered hyperinflation. It caused considerable internal political instability in the country, the occupation of the Ruhr by foreign troops as well as misery for the general populace. From August 1921, Germany began to buy foreign currency with marks at any price, but that only increased the speed of breakdown in the value of the mark. As the mark sank in international markets, more and more marks were required to buy the foreign currency that was demanded by the Reparations Commission. In the first half of 1922, the mark stabilized at about 320 marks per dollar. International reparations conferences were being held. One, in June 1922, was organized by US investment banker J. P. Morgan, Jr. The meetings produced no workable solution, and inflation erupted into hyperinflation, the mark falling to 7,400 marks per US dollar by December 1922. The cost-of-living index was 41 in June 1922 and 685 in December, a 15-fold increase. By fall 1922, Germany found itself unable to make reparations payments. The mark was by now practically worthless, making it impossible for Germany to buy foreign exchange or gold using paper marks. Instead, reparations were to be paid in goods such as coal. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the industrial region of Germany in the Ruhr valley to ensure reparations payments. Inflation was exacerbated when workers in the Ruhr went on a general strike and the German government printed more money to continue paying for their passive resistance. By November 1923, the US dollar was worth 4,210,500,000,000 German marks.
35. Dawes Plan-Signed Aug. 1924: The Allied troops evacuated the Ruhr Valley, reparations were reduced, a new payment plan was set up based on Germany's ability to pay, and foreign loans would be made available. The Dawes Plan (as proposed by the Dawes Committee, chaired by Charles G. Dawes) was an attempt in 1924 to solve the World War I reparations problem that Germany had to pay, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles.
36. Treaty of Locarno-(1925) EST. Germany's Western Border (w/ France and Belgium) & Eastern Border (w/ Poland) It was viewed as starting a new era of Euro. Peace, The Locarno Pact of 1925 was an agreement signed between Britain, France, Belgium, Italy and Germany. It was signed on 1st December 1925. The first aim of the Locarno Pact was to secure borders of the nations of Europe after the First World War.
37. the October 1929 stock market crash- Crowd gathering on Wall Street after the 1929 crash. The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as Black Tuesday (October 29),[1] the Great Crash, or the Stock Market Crash of 1929, began on October 24, 1929 ("Black Thursday"), and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its after effects.[2] The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchange's crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries.
38.The Great Depression-American Stock Market crashed. Americans withdrew loans from Germany. The Great Depression lasted from 1929 to 1939, and was the worst economic downturn in the history of the industrialized world. It began after the stock market crash of October 1929, which sent Wall Street into a panic and wiped out millions of investors.
39. John Maynard Keynes-That the gov't should fund public works projects to create jobs for the unemployed. Then the workers with money will buy things and then the demand will rise again and factories will hire back workers, John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes C8 FBA Kenz KAYNZ; 5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946), was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. He built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and was one of the most influential economists of the 20th century and the founder of modern macroeconomics theory. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics, and its various offshoots. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking, challenging the ideas of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. He instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. Keynes's magnum opus, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, was published in 1936. The leading Western economies adopted Keynes's policy recommendations before the outbreak of World War II, and in the two decades following Keynes's death in 1946, almost all capitalist governments had done so. Keynes's influence waned in the 1970s, partly as a result of the stagflation that plagued the Angelo-American economies during that decade, and partly because of criticism of Keynesian policies by Milton Friedman and other monetarists. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy, the advent of the global financial crisis of 2007–2008 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought. Keynesian economics provided the theoretical underpinning for economic policies undertaken in response to the crisis by President Barack Obama of the United States, Prime Minister Gordon Brown of the United Kingdom, and other heads of governments, When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, it said that "his radical idea that governments should spend money they don't have may have saved capitalism. The Economist has described Keynes as "Britain's most famous 20th-century economist, In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a civil servant, a director of the Bank of England, and a part of the Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals.
40. France’s Popular Front-In May of 1936: Communists, Socialists, and Radicals created this political coalition, The Popular Front (French: Front populaire) was an alliance of left-wing movements, including the French Communist Party (PCF), the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) and the Radical and Socialist Party, during the interwar period. Three months after the victory of the Frente Popular in Spain, the Popular Front won the May 1936 legislative elections, leading to the formation of a government first headed by SFIO leader Léon Blum and exclusively composed of Radical-Socialist and SFIO ministers. Blum's government implemented various social reforms. The workers' movement welcomed this electoral victory by launching a general strike in May–June 1936, resulting in the negotiation of the Matignon agreements, one of the cornerstone of social rights in France. All employees were assured a two-week paid vacation, and the rights of unions were strengthened. The socialist movement's euphoria was apparent in SFIO member Marceau Pivert's "Tout Est possible!" (Everything is possible). However, the economy continued to stall; by 1938 production still had not recovered to 1929 levels, while higher wages had been neutralized by inflation. Businessmen took their funds overseas. Blum was forced to stop his reforms and devalue the franc. With the French The Popular Front (French: Front populaire) was an alliance of left-wing movements, including the French Communist Party (PCF), the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) and the Radical and Socialist Party, during the interwar period. Three months after the victory of the Frente Popular in Spain, the Popular Front won the May 1936 legislative elections, leading to the formation of a government first headed by SFIO leader Léon Blum and exclusively composed of Radical-Socialist and SFIO ministers. Blum's government implemented various social reforms. The workers' movement welcomed this electoral victory by launching a general strike in May–June 1936, resulting in the negotiation of the Matignon agreements, one of the cornerstone of social rights in France. All employees were assured a two-week paid vacation, and the rights of unions were strengthened. The socialist movement's euphoria was apparent in SFIO member Marceau Pivert's "Tout est possible!" (Everything is possible). However, the economy continued to stall; by 1938 production still had not recovered to 1929 levels, while higher wages had been neutralized by inflation. Businessmen took their funds overseas. Blum was forced to stop his reforms and devalue the franc. With the French Senate controlled by conservatives, Blum, and thus the whole Popular Front, fell out of power in June 1937. Blum was then replaced by Camille Chautemps, a Radical, but Blum came back as President of the Council in March 1938, before being succeeded by Édouard Daladier, another Radical, the next month. The Popular Front dissolved itself in autumn 1938, confronted by internal dissensions related to the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), opposition of the right-wing, and the persistent effects of the Great Depression. After one year of major activity, it lost its spirit by June 1937 and could only temporize as the European crisis grew worse and worse. The Socialists were forced out; only the Radicals were left. It failed to live up to the expectations of the left. The workers did gain major new rights, but their 48 percent increase in wages was offset by a 46 percent rise in prices. Unemployment remained high, and overall industrial production was stagnant. Industry had great difficulty adjusting to the imposition of a 40-hour workweek, causing serious disruptions of the time when France was desperately trying to catch up with Germany in military production. France joined other nations and refused to help the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, for fear that civil war could break out in France itself. The refusal bitterly disappointed the French Left.
41. the Weimar republic Paul von Hindenburg-The Weimar Republic refers to Germany and its political system between late 1918 (the end of World War I) and 1933 (the rise of Nazism). The Weimar Republic began as a bold political experiment. By late 1933 Weimar democracy had given way to Nazi totalitarianism. Paul Von Hindenburg (1847-1934) was a German World War I military commander and president. After retiring again in 1919, he became president of the Weimar Republic in 1925, and died shortly after naming Adolf Hitler the German chancellor. known generally as Paul von Hindenburg (German: [?pa?l f?n ?h?ndn?b??k] (listen); 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a Generalfeldmarschall and statesman who commanded the German military during the second half of World War I before later being elected President of the German Reich in 1925.
42. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the new deal-The reform program implemented by President Franklin Roosevelt in the 1930s, which included large public works projects and the introduction of Social Security, the New Deal was a series of federal programs, public work projects, financial reforms and regulations enacted in the United States during the 1930s, created in response to the Great Depression. Some of these federal programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). These programs included support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly as well as new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and changes to the monetary system. Most programs were enacted between 1933–1938, though some were later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders, most during the first term of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs focused on what historians refer to as the relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of the nine presidential terms from 1933–1969) with its base in liberal ideas, the South, traditional Democrats, big city machines and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. The Republicans were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as an alleged enemy of business and growth and liberals accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal coalition that dominated most presidential elections into the 1960s while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress from 1939–1964.
43. Works progress administration and the social security act- On this day in 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs into law the Social Security Act. Press photographers snapped pictures as FDR, flanked by ranking members of Congress, signed into law the historic act, which guaranteed an income for the unemployed and retirees. FDR commended Congress for what he considered to be a “patriotic” act. Roosevelt had taken the helm of the country in 1932 during the Great Depression, the nation’s worst economic crisis. The Social Security Act (SSA) was in keeping with his other “New Deal” programs, including the establishment of the Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps, which attempted to hoist America out of the Great Depression by putting Americans back to work. In his public statement that day, FDR expressed concern for “young people [who] have come to wonder what would be their lot when they came to old age” as well as those who had employment but no job security. Although he acknowledged that “we can never insure one hundred percent of the population against one hundred percent of the hazards and vicissitudes of life,” he hoped the act would prevent senior citizens from ending up impoverished. Although it was initially created to combat unemployment, Social Security now functions primarily as a safety net for retirees and the disabled, and provides death benefits to taxpayer dependents. The Social Security system has remained relatively unchanged since 1935.
44. New Economic Policy(NEP)-A modified version of the old capitalist system introduced in the Soviet Union by Lenin in 1921 to revive the economy after the ravages of the civil war and war communism, Created by V.I. Lenin. It abandoned "War Communism" in favor of modified capitalism to Inc. agricultural and industrial output. After the civil war, Lenin revised his economic policy and introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP). Through this, peasants could sell some of their produce for profit and small traders could run businesses.
45.Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin-Wanted to end the NEP and industrialize the USSR. Wanted to immediately speed communism to other countries. (1879-1953): rivalry with Leon Trotsky (who held the position of commissar of war and was the leading spokesman for The Left) in the Politburo, the institution that became the leading group of the Communist Party; held the position of party general secretary; avoided allegiance to either the Left or Right faction in the Politburo; great organizer and used his post to gain complete control of the Communist Party; eliminated the Old Bolsheviks of the revolutionary era and established a dictatorship, Supported the NEP and rejected worldwide communism, believed USSR's efforts should focus on creating the perfect socialist state.
46. Theodor Van de Velde’s Ideal Marriage- Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique is a famous popular scientific treatise and self-help book published in London in 1926 by Dutch gynecologist Theodoor Hendrik van de Velde, retired director of the Gynecological Clinic in Haarlem, and "one of the major writers on human sexuality during the early twentieth century" (Frayser & Whitby, p. 300). It was the best-known work on its Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique is a famous popular scientific treatise and self-help book published in London in 1926 by Dutch gynecologist Theodoor Hendrik van de Velde, retired director of the Gynecological Clinic in Haarlem, and "one of the major writers on human sexuality during the early twentieth century" (Frayser & Whitby, p. 300). It was the best-known work on its subject for several decades, and was reprinted 46 times in the original edition. After World-War Two, it sold over a half-million copies.
47. Dadaism and surrealism-Post-WWI: artistic movement that sought a reality beyond the material, sensible world and found it in the world the unconscious through the portrayal of fantasies, dreams or nightmares; employed logic to convey the illogical; famous surrealist: Salvador Dali (1904-1989), Tristan Tzara- founder of Dadaism. Hannah Hoch- only woman in Berlin Dada Club, an artistic movement in the 1920s and 1930s by artists who were revolted by the senseless slaughter of WWI and used their "anti-art" to express contempt for the Western tradition
48. Salvador Dali’s the persistence of memory-The Persistence of Memory. Salvador Dalí frequently described his paintings as “hand painted dream photographs.” Emerging from psychological methods, a creative process, developed by Surrealist artist Salvador Dalí in the 1930s, for the exploration of the creative potential of dream imagery and subconscious thoughts.
49. Stream of consciousness- In literary criticism, stream of consciousness is a narrative mode or method that attempts to depict the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind The term was coined by William James in 1890 in his The Principles of Psychology, and in 1918 the novelist May Sinclair (1863–1946) first applied the term stream of consciousness, in a literary context, when discussing Dorothy Richardson's (1873–1957) novels. Pointed Roofs (1915), the first work in Richardson's series of 13 semi-autobiographical novels titled Pilgrimage,[2] is the first complete stream of consciousness novel published in English. However, in 1934, Richardson comments that "Proust, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf & D.R. were all using 'the new method', though very differently, simultaneously".[3] There were, however, many earlier precursors and the technique is still used by contemporary writers.
50. Herman Hesse and James Joyce- Born on July 2, 1877, in Calw, Germany, Hermann Hesse cultivated a career as a poet before releasing his debut novel, Peter Camenzind, in 1904. He eventually penned acclaimed books such as Siddhartha, Steppenwolf and The Glass Bead Game, among other long-form works and novellas. Hesse protested German fighting in WWI and later earned the 1946 Nobel Prize in Literature. He died on August 9, 1962. James Joyce was born on February 2, 1882 in Dublin, Ireland. He published "Portrait of the Artist" in 1916 and caught the attention of Ezra Pound. With "Ulysses," Joyce perfected his stream-of-consciousness style and became a literary celebrity. The explicit content of his prose brought about landmark legal decisions on obscenity. Joyce battled eye ailments for most of his life. He died in 1941. Born James Augustine Aloysius Joyce on February 2, 1882 in Dublin, Ireland, Joyce was one of the most revered writers of the 20th century, whose landmark book, Ulysses, is often hailed as one of the finest novels ever written. His exploration of language and new literary forms showed not only his genius as a writer but spawned a fresh approach for novelists, one that drew heavily on Joyce's love of the stream-of-consciousness technique and the examination of big events through small happenings in everyday lives.
51. Hollywood Studio System- The studio system (which was used during a period known as the Golden Age of Hollywood) is a method of film production and distribution dominated by a small number of "major" studios in Hollywood. Although the term is still used today as a reference to the systems and output of the major studios, historically the term refers to the practice of large motion picture studios between the 1920s and 1960s of (a) producing movies primarily on their own filmmaking lots with creative personnel under often long-term contract, and (b) dominating exhibition through vertical integration, i.e., the ownership or effective control of distributors and exhibition, guaranteeing additional sales of films through manipulative booking techniques such as block booking. The studio system was challenged under the anti-trust laws in a 1948 Supreme Court ruling which sought to separate production from the distribution and exhibition and ended such practices, thereby hastening the end of the studio system. By 1954, with television competing for audience and the last of the operational links between a major production studio and theater chain broken, the historic era of the studio system was over. The studio system has been critically scrutinized by many within and outside the system, on how it once commonly operated, with the way it treated employees and the actual stars employed, or developed, throughout this era. The ruthless treatment of many stars, both embryonic and established, has long been written about in the most controversial terms, including court cases or the litany of unfair suspensions applied, sometimes with dire career implications. Many studios practiced as the norm a system of the acute abuse of human rights within contractual obligations, which were too often unreasonable, unfair and sometimes downright abusive. Sexual politics and abuse was rife; it was no empty charge when Errol Flynn described Hollywood as 'one big unmade bed'. The treatment of women was an astonishing example of misogyni, sexist discrimination and sexual abuse, where women were too often treated like prostitutes that spoke of a very low morality level at the very heart of Tinseltown. Often underpaid, women, and men, had to endure a harsh, ruthless regime that forced them into a kind of indentured slavery, expected to do exactly what they were told, or else. Difficult stars could be deliberately besmirched and have their careers damaged or destroyed; just a chat by the studio bosses with Louella and the other Hollywood gossip columnists could do that. The power to destroy was far too apparent to many who dared to cross the bosses, as was their power to manipulate the police force, order cover-ups, and even, possibly, to arrange the odd murder or disappearance. The Big Knife movie is a good example of the ruthless, mobster style activities of studio execs who wielded a powerful abusive influence across the industry. Sexual politics were legion, and many enduring stars, like Joan Crawford, quickly learned that trading in sexual favours was paramount if you wanted to get on, or to punch your weight in the influence stakes. Complex and supremely efficient on the one hand, yet poisonous and ruthless beyond reason on the other, Hollywood studious were a towering force for great entertainment, great stars, but also for a kind of big business brutality that simply could not survive once television took off. Power corrupts and so sometimes when that power fades away it is never missed for very good reasons. The period stretching from the introduction of sound to the beginning of the demise of the studio system, 1927–1948/1949, is referred to by some film historians as the Golden Age of Hollywood. The Golden Age is a purely technical distinction and not to be confused with the style in film criticism known as Classical Hollywood cinema, a style of American film which developed from 1917 to 1963 and characterizes it to this day. During the so-called Golden Age, eight companies constituted the major studios that promulgated the Hollywood studio system. Of these eight, five were fully integrated conglomerates, combining ownership of a production studio, distribution division, and substantial theater chain, and contracting with performers and filmmaking personnel: Fox Film Corporation (later 20th Century Fox), Loew’s Incorporated (owner of America's largest theater circuit and parent company to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer), Paramount Pictures, RKO Radio Pictures, and Warner Bros. Two majors—Universal Pictures and Columbia Pictures—were similarly organized, though they never owned more than small theater circuits. The eighth of the Golden Age majors, United Artists, owned a few theaters and had access to two production facilities owned by members of its controlling partnership group, but it functioned primarily as a backer-distributor, loaning money to independent producers and releasing their films.
