PSYC 2010 Notes

https://quizlet.com/529854853/flashcards Developmental Psych Textbook Notes Chapter 1 Developmental Science The field of study that focuses on the range of children’s physical, intellectual, social, and emotional developments. Itard, 1800, found the wild boy and tried to turn him into a civilized member of society although he was delayed because of social isolation Interdisciplinary – psychology, anthropology, biology, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology International – development influenced by cultural contexts Developmentalist – someone who contributes to child’s development, regardless of the persons discipline or area of expertise MEG - magnetoencephalography along with other tests can investigate neurological disorders such as ADHS, epilepsy, and autism Periods of Development Prenatal Infancy Early childhood Middle childhood Adolescence Domains of Development Major areas of development, influences and influenced by others, ex. More physical development = more opportunity to explore Social Emotional Cognitive (intellectual) Physical Contexts of Development Physical environments Cultural beliefs and practices Families, peers, neighborhoods, communities, institutions Researchers compare children who experience of grow up under different conditions Harsh physical discipline has been associated with children’s aggression and anxiety in nine different countries. Also depends on extent to which punishment is considered ‘normal’ – in countries that physical punishment is appropriate, it has fewer negative effects Historical Beliefs about Children and Childhood Picking up crying babies used to be thought as making kids spoiled – now it is positive and responsive caregiving Playgrounds used to feature more gymnastic equipment, now built to stimulate the mind, imagination, and the body creativity and social interaction Before the 16th century, people did not give much thought to children or their needs, were considered miniature adults Centuries of childhood – artists of the same time depicted children as small men Preformationism – the belief that adultlike capacities, desires, interests and emotions are present in early childhood. Babies entrusted to the care of children as young as 3 Protestant Reformation – Mayflower – harsher child-rearing practices. Believed that children are born in original sin Sin could not be washed away – should be obedient and submissive to authority to elders first then God. Parents advised to adopt practices that would replace impulses with humility and compliance Glove to prevent thumb sucking Stiff arm cuffs, tying kids to beds at night Industrial Revolution – 18- 19 centuries modern notion of childhood emerged and transformed development: Shift from rural to urban living, increased schooling Less children in families which relationships changed Child death rate plummeted, with impacts on family relationships Emergence of Developmental Science Factories Inquires Committee in England – debated in 1833 to discover if children could work 12 hours vs 10 hours with 2 hours to religious and moral education Start for concern of children’s welfare The Origin of Species (Darwin) – 1859 led to fundamental changes Study of human development crucial to understanding human evolution Different stages of children’s behaviour offer clues to stages of evolution Importance of using scientific method of observation to see how mind changes over time William Preyer (1841-1897) – Wrote the first textbook on child development – proposed can be observed with strict rules – methods of study are most notable Sequences of Behaviour – show how new forms of behaviour emerge from earlier forms (walking = crawling) Preyer’s Rules of Observation Rely only on direct observations; avoid the reports of “persons not practiced in scientific observing.” Record observations immediately so that details are not forgotten Make every effort to be unobtrusive, to “observe without the child’s noticing the observer at all.” Avoid any “training” of the young child in order to observe “unadulterated mental development.” If regular observations are interrupted for more than 1 day, another observer must be substituted, and his or her observations should be checked for accuracy. (Preyer observed and recorded his child’s behavior two to three times every day!) Everything should be recorded, even behaviors that seem uninteresting at the time. James Mark Baldwin (1861 – 1934) – Stage theories challenged scientists who believed in the preformationist view that adult abilities are within a child – argued that children’s abilities progress in stages Alfred Binet (1857-1911) – Mental testing resulted in the first widely used intelligence test – the Stanford Binet The New Field of Developmental Science Early 20th century developmental study recognized as a field of scientific inquiry Special institutions arose in universities in the USA Special mission projects – research involved a wide variety, gifted children and also the effects of motion pictures on children research on children’s development continues to be motivated by the twin goals that were present at the discipline’s origins: the scientific and philosophic goal of understanding how our biological and cultural heritages combine to shape our development as humans and the practical goal of understanding how best to promote the health and well-being of children. The Central Issues of Developmental Science sources of development – is the child active or passive? biology, environment, and child’s own activities interact human beings share more than genes physical, social, cultural environments plasticity – The degree to which, and the conditions under which, development is subject to change and intervention allows individuals to adapt to different environments influenced by sensitive (critical) periods – times in an organism’s development which an experience has a more pronounced effect on the organism than exposure to the same experience a second time does. Example: language learning younger vs. older (6-7 years) 44479187899600continuity / discontinuity – fundamental issue with process of development if it is either, gradual, continuous accumulation of small change, or is discontinuous steps, abrupt, radical transformations. Continuous emphasis on quantitative change Discontinuous qualitative change Developmental stage – qualitatively distinctive, coherent pattern of behaviour that emerges during the course of development Con: children appear to be in one stage on one occasion then different on another Alison Gopnik (2012) regardless of age, individuals can reason with theories that allow them to explain, and modify when incorrect individual differences – how stable are differences over time and how do differences affect development Two Questions: (1) what makes individuals different? plasticity of development (2) to what extent are individual characteristics stable over time? assessing psychological traits is different between stages like infancy or 8 years old, many studies found only moderate stability Depends on stability of their environment Theories of Development Theory: framework or set of principles that can be used to guide the collection and interpretation of a set of facts. Observations and dealing with behaviour influenced by the theory used Can bias and distort observations Theory functions: Organize and integrate existing information into coherent and interesting accounts of children s behaviour Lead to testable hypotheses and predictions about child’s behaviour Theoretical perspectives: Theories need to be clear and encompassing Biological, social, and cognitive development all come together Domains of development under investigation – what is appropriate to understand development cognitively, socially, emotionally, or physically, or combinations explored Research methods used – observational, experimental, etc. Central issues addressed – theories differ in approach to the four central issues (above) Broad Groups of Theories Psychodynamic – Freud, Erikson Learning – conditioning – Classical (Pavlov), Operant (skinner) Cognitive learning – Bandura (reciprocal determinism, Bobo doll), Siegler (information processing), Piaget (schema, object permanence), Vygotsky (cultures, proximal development) Biological –behaviour adaptive; Ethological (zoologists, critical period), Evolutionary Lifespan – change occurs because of: Normative, non-normative, historical events Grand Theories Psychodynamic theories - Explore the influence on development and developmental stages of universal biological drives and the life experiences of individuals. (resolving of conflict) Sigmund Freud was first to develop Erik Erikson Freud Psychosexual stages vs. Erikson Differentiation and identification: Boys differentiate from their mothers and identify with their fathers through resolution of the Oedipus complex. Girls’ resolution of the Electra complex results in identification with their mother, with the attempt to differentiate from her being short-circuited. Freud: Psychological growth is governed by unconscious biologically based drives and instincts and is shaped by encounters with the environment – Development is discontinuous – 5 discrete stages Personalities: Id – present from birth, biological drives Ego – early childhood, rational Superego – emerges last, attempts to suppress id and force ego to make choices Argued that the three structures rarely in perfect balance – constant battle is engine of developmental change – Ego development Erikson – differences, also discontinuous marked by crises that need to be resolved 1- Emphasized social and cultural factors rather than biological drives as major force of development 2- viewed development as continuing throughout life rather than ending in adolescence Main challenge for life is the quest for identity, each life cycle unfolds in the context of a specific culture Psychodynamic Perspective These theories shaped the way others viewed development, especially the effect of early experiences on later behaviour, both lead to other theories Cons of Freud’s theory is: difficult to test based on special population Methods were biased – not sound logically Focus on sexuality was too narrow and exaggerated Erikson’s theory is: better but still has problems FREUD Age Period Stage Fixation 0-1 Oral Focus on eating and taking things into the mouth 1-3 Anal Emphasis on toilet training; first experience with discipline and authority 3-6 Phallic Increase in sexual urges arouses curiosity and alerts children to gender differences; period critical to formation of gender identity 6-12 Latency Sexual urges repressed; emphasis on education and the beginnings of concern for others 12-20 Genital With puberty, sexual desires reemerge and adolescents and adults express these urges in romantic relationships ERIKSON Stage Conflict Task and Risk Infancy (<6 months) Trust vs. mistrust Task: To develop basic trust in oneself and others – baby crying you should tend to – needs met Risk: Mistrust of others and lack of self-confidence Early childhood Autonomy vs doubt Task: to learn self-control and establish autonomy Risk: Shame and doubt about one’s own capabilities Play age Initiative vs guilt Task: To develop initiative in mastering environment Risk: Feelings of guilt over aggressiveness and daring School age Industry vs. inferiority Task: To develop industry Risk: Feelings of inferiority over real or imagined failure to master tasks Adolescence Phases within Identity vs. role confusion Task: To achieve a sense of identity Risk: Role confusion over who and what individual wants to be Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Task: To achieve intimacy with others Risk: Shaky identity may lead to avoidance of others and isolation Adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Task: To express oneself through generativity, fulfilling ones potential and doing public service Risk: Inability to create children, ideas, or products may lead to stagnation Mature age Integrity vs. despair Task: To achieve a sense of integrity, reflect on past Risk: Doubts and unfulfilled desires may lead to despair 1147864-52700 Behaviorism Theories that focus on development as a result of learning and on changes in behaviour as a result of forming associations between behaviour and consequences Learning process involves modifying behaviour depending on learning experiences, observable behaviour and consequences John B. Watson – behaviorism entirely transformed how human behaviour should be studied and understood because shifts focus from inner mind to external, observable behaviours and consequences Made science of human behaviour more ‘objective’ Believed that primary role of learning in development, insignificance of other factors – said he could train any infant to become whatever she wished with learning Edward Thorndike – theory of his law of effect – that behaviours that produce a satisfying effect in a given situation are likely to be repeated in the same or similar situations, whereas uncomfortable likely to be less repeated Skinner – baby box Piaget’s Constructivist Theory (Cognitive) Theory in which cognitive development results from children’s active construct of reality, based on their experiences with the real world Biologically driven motivation to learn and explore, emphasis on children’s active role in shaping their own development Discontinuous Children actively construct an understanding of the world, striving to master environments Example: 6-month-old playing with set of wooden blocks – knowledge constructed different (banging blocks) than when she is 6 years old (building tower) Piaget believed development sped up or slowed by variations in environment (ex. School) Most basic unit of cognitive function – schema provides framework for understanding some aspects of the world. Transform schemas through adaptation to new information 2 processes of increasing a child’s cognitive understanding assimilation (incorporating new info) accommodation (modifying existing schema) Ex. Transforming the sucking schema – nipple, pacifier, shoulder etc. Cons: timing Equilibration – ‘back and forth process’ - the main source of development, consisting of a process of achieving a balance between the child’s present understanding and the child’s new experiences Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Age Characteristics and Achievements Sensorimotor 0-2 Differentiates self from objects and others Seeks interesting sights Develops object permanence and basic understanding of causality Begins to imitate and engage in imaginative play Preoperational (juice and glass, quarters spaced) 2-7 Begins to use symbols and language Problem solving is intuitive and thinking is egocentric, irreversible, centred Concrete Operational (knows juice same) 7-12 Can reason logically about present objects Grasps concept of conservation Can take the perspective of another person Can organize objects in classes and series Formal Operations >12 Thinking is flexible and complex Can think about abstract ideas and hypotheses Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – emphasizes culture influence, cognitive development Biological and social factors both play a role , Children construct own development Third force – culture – part of it, human biology and environments shape development by interacting directly through culture Ex. Mathematical understanding – Oksapmin numbers counted by pointing to specific parts of body (27), would be hard to be successful in modern countries Zone of Proximal development – the gap between what children can accomplish independently and what they can accomplish with others who are more competent (close by) Three principles of cultural influence: Cultures vary in the settings and practices they provide These settings facilitate children’s development Children learn about their culture from experienced members (zone of) Summary of Grand Theories 932613175490 Modern Theories Evolutionary Theories that explain how behaviour contributes to survival and address influence of evolutionary past on development – survival of species, more successful more likely to breed Look at how these behaviours evolved in our past Central in ethology – field of studies that explores biological and evolutionary foundations of animal (+ human) behaviour in natural environments Behaviours adapted to increase likelihood of reproduction, look at adaptive behaviours of young and behaviour they elicit in others Ex. Babies are cute to elicit positive responses, so they elicit care from parents Study by Fullard and Reiling, people 7-young adult chose pictures of what they preferred, babies or adults. Shifts from preference around reproduction time Cognitive - Social learning Theory Theories that emphasize the behaviour-consequences associations that children learn by observing and interacting with others in social situations Rooted in behaviorism, except unlike behaviorism emphasis on social learning theories Conditioning – Classical and Operational Conditioning Is the most basic form of learning Valuable in understanding parts of development Classical conditioning (Pavlov): Learning by repeated pairing of stimulus and response UCS: unconditioned stimulus (food) UCR: unconditioned response (salivating) CS: conditioned stimulus (bell) 3680568-1479500CR: conditioned response (salivating) UCS (food) -> UCR (salivating) UCS (food) + CS (bell) -> UCR (salivating) … CS (bell) -> CR (salivating) Operant conditioning (Skinner): Learning through reinforcement and punishment Positive – adding something Negative – taking away something Reinforcement – increasing likelihood of behaviour Punishment – decreasing likelihood of behaviour Drive Reduction Theory (Hull) Worked well with Freud Conditioning works but only if it reduces drives like hunger, thirst, sex, etc. Reciprocal determinism – child affects the models behaviour Bandura’s Cognitive - Social Learning Theory modeling - observe and imitate others self-efficacy – high self-efficacy is high amount of faith in ability to master any challenge, vs low self-efficacy with avoid difficult tasks - contributing to their own development – child thinks that they can do something and contributes to their own development personality problems are learned and can be unlearned – lead to behaviour modification 4 sets of factors affect whether kids imitate: Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Bobo doll experiment - studied aggression in small children People said it purged us but kids watching reciprocated the actions they saw More if child was same sex as an adult or if the behaviour was rewarded Cognitive Learning Perspective Information processing perspective (Siegler) Like a computer: attention, input, representation, storage, comparison, generates possibilities, makes decision, takes action Social information-processing theory – continuous, very linear 3 Main Characteristics: Thinking: coding, storing information, broaden attention with maturity Change mechanisms: automatic Self-modification: active and learn to apply strategies to deal with new things Cons: Great perspective but doesn’t account for changes over age Information processing (Siegler) Theories that look at cognitive development in terms of how children come to perceive, remember, organize, and manipulate information in increasingly efficient ways. How attention and memory develop, develop strategies to help remember things and solve problems Unconscious information processing skills – how quickly or how much information at one time Conscious information processing – remember by rehearsing, skimming through textbook for bold terms Systems Theories Theories that envision development in terms of complex wholes made up of parts (systems) and that explore how these wholes and their parts are organized and interact and change over time. Ex. Walking disorganized eventually becomes organized and coordinated with time, or contexts of which children live (family, community, etc) interrelate Dynamic Systems Theory Addresses how new, complex systems of behaviour develop from the interaction of less complex parts Ex. Baby reaching and grabbing a toy visual, perceptual system, motor system, finally they all interact to perform the coordinated movement. Eventually will become second nature once balanced system **interested in what sparks beginnings of new systems and how they become organized Ecological Systems Theory Theory focusing on the organization and interactions of the multiple environmental contexts within which children develop Ecology studies relationships of organisms with their environments Both biological and dynamic theories believe that development is best understood as a complex and unified system that is organized and reorganized over time Biological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) – bioecological model One of the most influential models of ecological systems Model that sees children in the context of five interrelated systems: microsystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem Five systems interact and influence one another Microsystem – various settings child inhabits on daily basis – face to face settings of home, school, peer groups Mesosystem – links microsystems to one another, such as parent’s involvement in child’s school. Strength and nature of connections are important to child’s development – consistent between parents, teachers, peers, or conflict Exosystem – settings that affect but do not usually include the child – ex. Parents workplace good, then child more likely to receive good care Macrosystem – values, customs, hazards, resources of larger culture that shape what happens in all of the settings of the systems within. Values regarding race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status can diminish care quality Chronosystem – timing of life altering personal transitions, major environmental events, and significant sociohistorical circumstances None of the theories are sufficiently comprehensive to explain full picture of development, each provides information for formulating hypotheses Hypothesis – statement about expected research results that is precise enough to be shown true or false Biological Perspectives – behaviour is adaptive Ethological Theory (zoologists) – descriptive and observational, qualitative type research Must view behaviour as having adaptive and survival value Critical period – species specific and general, when organism exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development – things must happen during certain period or they won’t develop at all Evolutionary developmental theory - ethologist Look at how these behaviours evolved in our past, parallel that with development Life Span Perspective Includes biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions Change can occur because of 3 sets of causes: Normative events: most people encounter at roughly the same age – starting school, moving out at 18 Non-normative events: divorce of parents Historical events: age cohorts – great depression, covid Summary of Theories Active vs. Passive? Continuous vs. Discontinuous? Lies in the middle? No one theory accounts for all of development Different theories can be applied to different situations Other Theoretical Issues Plasticity – malleable or fixed? Individual Differences – how different is development between people Methods for Studying Development The Goals of Developmental Research 3 types of research, often overlap in their goals Ex. Effectiveness of head Start Program = basic because addresses plasticity, applied because seeks knowledge to improve lives of socially disadvantaged children, and action in that it influences policy decisions Basic Research Goal: to advance scientific knowledge of development, new knowledge, often explores major theoretical issues, such as continuity, plasticity, and sources of development Audience: scientists and other developmental practitioners Applied Research Goal: Answer questions about improving children’s lives and experiences, solving problems with new knowledge Ex. Assessing violence, prevention programs, or immigrant children learning better in native language or language of adopted country Audience: scientists and other developmental practitioners Action Research Close to applied research aka “mission-oriented research” Goal: provide data to be used in making social-policy decisions Ex. Programs and policies ranging from Head Start school program, to federal regulations regarding education of children with special needs, toy safety, foster care requirements Difference between 1 + 2: audience: legislators and government officials, meant to sway their opinions Developmentalists have become increasingly drawn to action research, because of sense of social obligation by universities etc. University-community partnerships formed about specific local issues Ex. Cultural differences play role in academic failure in indigenous kids in USA Recommendation for teacher training and more interaction with indigenous families Criteria for Developmental Research 4 most commonly used criteria for judging scientific research Objectivity The requirement that scientific knowledge not be distorted by the investigator’s preconceptions Reliability The scientific requirement that when the same behavior is measured on two or more occasions by the same or different observers, the measurements must be consistent with each other. Produces the same results under similar conditions Investigators should get same results each time data collected under same conditions Description of results should be in agreement with each other Replicability other researchers be able to use the same procedures as an initial investigator did and obtain the same results Validity Data being collected must actually reflect the phenomenon being studied The Research Process Have a good idea Translate into a clear researchable hypothesis Review past literature Operationalize the construct: define the research very clearly Make design to test hypothesis Collect data Analyze data Make Conclusions, based on data and relate back to hypothesis Methods of Data Collection Naturalistic observation, experiments, clinical interviews Self-reports: asking people for information, ex. How much alchohol they consume Table 1.5 Methods of Data Collection Direct observation Method Description Advantages Disadvantages Naturalistic Observation Real world setting, field experiments Observing and recording the actual behavior of people in the course of their everyday lives -Western countries less likely to be accepted by peers than are shy children in China -ethnography: explain the meanings of children’s behaviours, the study of the cultural organization of behaviour Direct way to gather objective information revealing the full complexity of behavior People might behave differently under observation; expectations may shape observations; information may be lost or time-consuming to analyze (cannot write down everything), analyzing recordings is time consuming -Observer Bias Experiment (laboratory observation) Controlled setting, structured observation Introducing a change in a group’s experience and measuring the effects of the change -independent and dependent variables -randomly assigned to experimental (manipulated) or control group Best method of testing causal hypotheses People may behave differently in the experimental setting, distorting the validity of the results (artificial or experimental situations) -Can lack ecological validity – character studied in one environment is characteristic of a behaviour by the same person in a range of other conditions Clinical Interview (Jean Piaget – dream interviews) Asking questions tailored to the individual, with each question depending on the answer to the earlier one Possible to probe the child’s way of thinking in order to discover patterns Reliance on verbal expression makes the method inappropriate with very young children Gathering Data Asking children Pros: great, rarely used with kids Cons: hard with kids, can be honesty issues Don’t always know what’s going on with themselves or how to describe Language and introspection issues, social desirability (kids) Asking others close to children (parents) – Reports by family, teachers, peers Many observations over time and across settings Not highly accurate (but that is ok) Teachers could be biased Teacher expectancy Effect 4 factors: teachers favourite those who they think will be successful Climate: warmer environment for favourites Input: teach more material to those kids Response Opportunity: call on them more often, longer time to speak Feedback: more expected, more praise, and more feedback if wrong Observing the children directly Naturalistic observation (above) Structured observation (laboratory) – ecological validity Research Designs Basic Research Designs: (1) AND (2) MOST COMMON Correlational method Exploring relationship between 2 or more variables ’s r: -1 to 1 Value – how strong the relationship is Sign: is it positive or negative Does Not = Causation Problems? Interpreting data, ex. Autism vs. vaccines If one thing always happens before the other it may mean that it causes Experimentation Hold all other factors constant Random assignment into experimental group or control group Independent variable Dependent variable Operational definition: concrete definition, what does the variable mean… conclusions can be different for the variable definition. Important for researcher and consumer Ecological validity: can it be applied to real world, especially in the lab Case studies Single or small group, can usually generalize to everyone Can explore rare phenomena Can explore the issue further Generalizability Ethnographic studies Like a case study, but focus on a specific culture or group of people – intensively study them Different cultures, how they treat children etc. Combining methods is ideal: Researchers use triangulation, where two or more methods are combined to confirm conclusions, as pros and cons to each method. Field Experiments, Interventions, and Natural Experiments Field experiments Observer bias – people change when being watched Generalizability Interventions broader and longer than field Start hand washing campaigns, and see how works Like field experiments, but broader and longer Introducing something and making manipulation in real world Natural Experiments Quasi-experiment Can’t manipulate something, but kind of treat it like you have Those who are naturally exposed to something (ex. Effect of gender, or COVID, race) Table 1.6 Research Designs (methodology) – Studying Change over time (lec notes) Design Description Advantages Disadvantages Longitudinal -same people, over time Collects information about a group of people over time, as they grow -Jerome Kagan, continuity in behaviour patterns -personality, mental health, temperament, intelligence, language, social adjustment Possible to discover patterns of continuity and change over time -informative Expensive: long-term commitment may lead to selective dropout; subjects moving; risk of confounding age differences with cohort differences (a group of people born about the same time and likely to share same experiences different than other ages, ex depression) -selective dropout: difficulties more common with one social, economic, or ethnic group which creates biased sample and reduces validity Cross-Sectional -most common way -different ages, same time Collects information about groups of various ages at same time -demonstrated both qualitative and quantitative developmental changes -age-related changes Relatively less time-consuming and less expensive Disconnected snapshots, requiring inferences about processes of change, - if groups differ other than in age (sex, ethnicity), can’t determine if reason due to age or other variables (confounding) Cohort Sequential Ex. Vern Bengtson -different ages, over time Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches by studying several cohorts over time Age-related factors in change can be separated from cohort factors -less time, same ideas To a lesser extent, disadvantages of the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs Microgenetic Focuses on development over short periods (hours or days), especially when children are on the threshold of a change Provides a continuous record of change, revealing change processes Limited to changes occurring over short periods of time Other Issues Related to Design Representativeness of sample – generalizing the extent to which the sample acuratley reflects the characteristics of the population National Surveys Informative, representative Meta-analysis Pools data from lots of studies, talks about why and when the differences occur, more robust Ex. Some studies emotion hurts memory or help – they explain why Actual statistical analyses of other studies (next level lit review) Not literature reviews, but similar Cross-cultural studies How universal things are (development) – all children or different cultures? Translation can be difficult, but rewarding Recording and Coding Behavioural observations Specimen record – everything they’re doing Event sampling – related to specific events Time sampling – time blocks Nonverbal methods Babies and young children Laughing, crying, babblng, gazing, directed movement Where baby looks is usually at what they like, or something new, windows into what is going on Habituation Get bored or used to something, so not reaction Psychophysiological EEG Brains electrical, at home ones exist May behave differently – Ecological Validity Brain development gives insight into cognitive and social development Temporal – timing of the imaging in real time – ex while talking showing in real time Spatial – where in the brain the activity is occuring Brain imaging Hormone (cortisol) Cheek sample so easy to do Technique What is it? Advantage Disadvantage Electroencephalography (EEG) Recording of the brain’s spontaneous electrical activity over a short period by means of multiple electrodes placed on the scalp Detects very rapid changes in electrical activity, allowing analysis of stages of cognitive processing Provides poor spatial resolution of the source of the electrical activity Positron-emission tomography (PET) A visual image of an injected radioactive substance showing blood flow or glucose use, reflecting changes in neuronal activity Provides spatial resolution better than EEG but less than MRI Cannot follow rapid changes; requires exposure to low levels of radioactivity Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional (fMRI) MRI: high spatial resolution of brain anatomy; fMRI: provides images of changes in blood flow that indicate specific anatomical details and changes in neural activity Provides high temporal resolution; requires no exposure to radioactivity -while someone is talking it shows High cost to operate Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Shows which brain regions are necessary for given tasks by changes after TMS is applied to a location Temporarily disrupts a specific region of brain by exposing it to intense magnetic energy Long-term safety is not well established Analyzing Data Qualitative data Descriptive, exploring topic, preliminary research Quantitative data Code qualitative to numbers Statistical analyses Ethical Standards Institutional Review Boards (IRB): groups responsible for evaluating and overseeing the ethical soundness of research practices at an institution. Nuremberg Code: The first formal international standard for evaluating the ethics of research involving human participants Hard to research kids Guidelines: Freedom from harm Informed Consent Parent School Assent (8 years old) – to express agreement Confidentiality – code numbers to participants Debriefing – after study complete, participants informed of its purpose and the methods Appropriate Language Chapter 1 Summary One of the earliest efforts in the study of child development involved Jean-Marc Itard’s work with the Wild Boy of Aveyron. This unusual case posed fundamental questions: To what extent is development determined from birth, and to what extent is it influenced by the environment? What is the role of early experience in shaping development, and can the effects of negative experiences be undone? Developmental Science Developmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on the changes that children undergo from conception onward. Its two goals are to understand the basic biological and cultural processes that account for the complexities of development and to devise ways of safeguarding children’s health and well-being. Developmentalists divide the time between conception and adulthood into five periods: the prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Developmentalists look at the changes children undergo in several closely interrelated domains—social, emotional, cognitive (intellectual), and physical. Children’s development is profoundly shaped by the contexts in which they live, including physical environments, cultural beliefs and practices, families and peers, neighborhoods and communities, and institutions such as schools and governments. Children, Society, and Science Developmental science emerged and developed within historical and cultural contexts, including that of changing beliefs about children. In medieval Europe, children evidently were considered miniature adults. In the sixteenth century, the Protestant Reformation led to the view of children as willful, sinful creatures whose disobedient acts called for harsh treatment. Nineteenth-century industrialization fundamentally altered family life, education, and work, and these changed conditions contributed to a protectionist view of children and to the rise of developmental science. Darwin’s theory of evolution sparked scientific interest in children; by the early twentieth century, developmental science had become a recognized field. The Central Issues of Developmental Science Developmentalists’ research is focused on four fundamental issues: 1. Sources of development. How do biological, physical, social, and cultural factors interact to produce development? 2. Plasticity. To what degree, and under what conditions, is development open to change and intervention? Plasticity is greatest during sensitive periods. 3. Continuity/discontinuity. To what extent does development consist of the gradual accumulation of small changes, and to what extent does it involve abrupt transformations, or stages? 4. Individual differences. How do some developmental traits, affected by various environments, result in individual differences among people? To what extent are individual characteristics stable? Theories of Development Theory plays an important role in developmental science by providing a broad conceptual framework to guide the collection and interpretation of facts. The grand theories laid the foundation for developmental science, and each covers various domains. The grand theories include: Psychodynamic theories—Freud’s theory, in which psychosexual stages are associated with the changing focus of the sex drive, and Erikson’s theory, in which psychosocial stages are associated with tasks or crises shaped by social and cultural factors. Behaviorist theories, which focus on development through learning, emphasize behavioral changes resulting from the individual’s forming associations between behavior and its consequences. Piaget’s constructivist theory, in which children, by striving to master their environments and searching for fits between their existing schemas and new experiences, progress through universal stages of cognitive development. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which focuses on the role of culture in development and on children learning through finely tuned interactions with others who are more competent. Influential modern theories of development include: Evolutionary theories, which look at how human characteristics contribute to the survival of the species and at how our evolutionary past influences individual development. Social learning theories, which, like behaviorist theories, focus on the learning of associations between behaviors and their consequences but emphasize learning that occurs through the observation of, and interaction with, others. Information-processing theories, which, using computer analogies, look at how children process, store, organize, retrieve, and manipulate information in increasingly efficient ways. Systems theories—dynamic systems theory, which focuses on the development of new systems of behavior from the interaction of less complex parts, and ecological systems theory, which focuses on the organization of the environmental contexts within which children develop. Methods for Studying Development Research—whether basic, applied, or action research—must be designed to meet the criteria of objectivity, reliability, replicability, and validity. Research must also be ethically sound. Depending on their topic and goal, researchers use one or more methods of data collection, each with advantages and disadvantages: Naturalistic observation involves watching children in the course of their everyday lives and recording what happens. Experiments consist of introducing some change into a group’s experience and measuring the effects of the change on the group’s members, who are compared with a similar group that did not undergo the experience. manipulated Clinical interviews allow researchers to tailor data collection to each research participant. Researchers also use several designs, or overall plans, intended to capture the complexities of age-related change: The longitudinal design studies the same children repeatedly over a period of time. The cross-sectional design studies children of different ages at a single time. The cohort sequential design combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches by studying several cohorts over time. The microgenetic design studies the same children over a short period, often one of rapid change. Chapter 2 Notes The Tools of Culture Culture: material and symbolic tools that accumulate through time, are passed on through social processes, and provide resources for the developing of a child. All cultural tools include two principal features. They influence development by organizing children’s activities and the way they relate to their environments Material tools: focus on physical objects or observable patterns of behaviour Ex. Family routines and social practices, androids, cars, how children are educated, how birthday parties held Symbolic tools: abstract knowledge, beliefs, and values Ex. Mathematics, music notes, star of David, Chinese letter Mediation: the organization of people’s activities (through the use of tools) and ways of relating to their environments Material and symbolic tools accumulate over time and are passed on through social practices Process of Cultural Inheritance Culture is transmitted and transformed from one generation to the next Social Processes of Cultural Inheritance Through several social processes Social enhancement: The most basic social process of learning to use cultural resources, in which resources are used simply because the activities of others have enhanced the immediate environment by making these resources available. Imitation: Children learn to use their cultures resources by observing and copying the behaviours of others Explicit instruction: the social process in which children are purposefully taught to use the resources of their culture The most complex way of inheriting culture for two reasons Explicit instruction uses symbolic communication Because of symbolic communication it makes it possible to teach children about things that are not in their immediate environment – has allowed for expansion The Special Role of Symbols and Language Symbolic communication permits the expression of abstract ideas, desires, ambition, and emotions, written and drawing art, music Infinite range of thoughts and feelings, both real and imagines Stories and myths can convey cultural values and beliefs and an understanding of relationships between each other Tools mediate children’s activities and relationships in ways that are central to development Children’s behaviour can be symbolically modified – ex. Candies on tray vs. animal pictures The Complexity of Culture Culture is transmitted through social processes but also modified by individuals themselves Modified as they become users of cultural tools – simultaneously contribute to the transformation of cultural tools Cumulative cultural evolution: dynamic ongoing process of cultural change that is a consequence of variation that individuals have produced in the cultural tools they use Ex: letters to communicate to phones to smart phones with technology Variations occur in both material and symbolic resources (knowledge, beliefs and values) Ex. Beliefs about women – stay home now they work and are successful Ex. Movement of the planets and the nature of light to how the brain works Lost culture aspects Societies become isolated from other groups (Tasmanian societies) – glaciers cut off Tasmania from Australia, their cultural toolkit because less complex, which reduced the ‘pool of social learners’ – joseph Henrich – which transformed their culture Culture constantly reinventing itself through the addition of new ethnic groups to multicultural societies, changes in education, widening effects of mass media, economy and technology changes Biological Inheritance Two fundamental issues How an individual’s genetic characteristics are actually expressed in physical and psychological traits they display The way an individual’s genetic makeup and corresponding traits enter the process of evolution A. afarensis ancestors – walking upright associated with pelvic structure and birth canal that were narrower than those walking on knuckles – also brain size and skull enlarged considerably when this evolved – change in length of pregnancy – infants born earlier in a less developed state Genes and Traits Heredity: the biological transmission of characteristics from one generation to the next Evolution made possible because of this Genes: the segments on a DNA molecule that act as hereditary blueprints for the organism’s development Genotype: the genetic endowment (makeup) of an individual, remains constant throughout lifetime Phenotype: an organism’s observable characteristic that result from the interaction of the genotype with the environment (influenced by environment) Importance of distinction between genotype and phenotype (3) Knowledge of an individual’s genotype and phenotype comes from different sources G – genetic material, P – body and behaviour Although genotype and phenotype are related, they don’t coincide Ex. Identical twins have same genotype but different phenotypes Genotype and phenotype enter evolution in distinctive ways Evolution’s Process of Natural Selection Darwin Natural Selection: process where species survives and evolves, individuals with phenotypes that are more adaptive to the environment survive and reproduce with greater success than less adaptive individuals – ‘survival of the fittest’ Emergence of Shorter Pregnancies Evolved as part of an integrated network of changes related to bipedalism, smaller birth canal, larger brain, increased skull size Natural Selection process: Females who had longer pregnancies were less likely to survive therefore less likely to have additional offspring – also infants were more likely to be harmed during difficult deliveries Natural selection favoured the adaptive phenotypic trait of short pregnancy In addition, capacities for learning and socialization are due to the natural selection of adaptive phenotypes 5236993271(tentative argument based on fossil evidence and survival value of comparable behaviours in species that are highly similar to humans) Genetic inheritance Through Sexual Reproduction Chromosome: threadlike structure made up of genes. In humans, there are 46 chromosomes in every cell (23 pairs), except sperm and ova. Contains thousands of genes. A single molecule of DNA DNA: a long, double-stranded molecule that makes up chromosomes. Two connected strands spiral around each other (double helix) Zygote: the single cell formed at conception from sperm and egg (23+23) Creating New Cells Germ cells: sperm and ova, 23 unpaired chromosomes Somatic cells: all cells in the body except the germ cells Mitosis: process of cell duplication and division that generates all of individuals cells except germ Meiosis: sperm and ova – 46 92 x2 46 x4 23 Probability: 223, 8 million possible genetic combinations for each sperm and ovum 49785904017307Probability that siblings will inherit the same genes from both parents is 1 in 64 trillion Monozygotic Twins (MZ): twins who come from sam zygote and develop into two different people, identical genotypes Dizygotic Twins (DZ): twins who come from two zygotes fertilized at the same time (fraternal twins) Sex Determination X chromosome – female (XX), much longer than Y Y-Chromosome – male (XY) Males determine the sex Laws of Genetic Inheritance Allele: specific form of a gene that influences trait Homozygous: inherited two genes of same allelic form of trait Heterozygous: inherited two genes of a different allelic form for a trait, 3 things can happen (1) Child will display characteristics of dominant allele over the recessive allele Carriers of the recessive allele, express the dominant allele but can pass on recessive allele to offspring (unaffected by disorder) (2) Child will be affected by both alleles and produce intermediate phenotype (ex. Skin colour) (3) child will express both alleles at the same time (ex. Blood type) – Codominance: trait determined by both alleles, different from the trait produced by either one of the alleles by themselves Recessive Disorders occur when child inherits both recessive alleles from each parent Most traits, especially behavioural – intelligence, empathy, aggression – involve polygenic inheritance: contribution of a variety of genes to a trait Table 2.2 Common Genetic Disorders Disorder Description Incidence Prenatal/Carrier Detection? Treatment and Prognosis Recessive Disorders – consequence of specific genetic material inherited by a normal process Cystic Fibrosis Lack of an enzyme causes mucus obstruction, especially in lungs and digestive tract 1 in 3,000 Caucasian births in U.S.; 1 in 17,000 African American births Yes/Yes Medications, treatments, diet used to clear airways, loosen mucus, aid digestion. In U.S., most survive into 30s. Phenylketonuria (PKU) Inability to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid, leads to its buildup in the bloodstream, retarding brain-cell development 1 in 10,000–15,000 U.S. infants -incidence lower among Blacks than Whites, and lower in sub-Saharan African and South Asian than others Yes/Yes Most states in USA require test Treatment by diet beginning in infancy (low phenylalanine) and continuing throughout life can reduce severity of brain damage and mental retardation. Sickle-cell anemia Abnormally shaped blood cells cause circulatory problems and severe anemia 8–9% of African Americans; more than 20% of West Africans Yes/Yes Organ damage and severe pain can result. Treatment by medication can reduce symptoms and complications. Tay-Sachs disease Lack of an enzyme causes buildup of waste in brain 1 in 3,600 among Ashkenazi Jews in U.S. Yes/Yes Neurological degeneration leads to death before age 4. Thalassemia (Cooley’s anemia) Abnormal red blood cells 1 in 500 births in populations from subtropical areas of Europe, Africa, and Asia Yes/Yes Listlessness, enlarged liver and spleen, occasionally death; treatable by blood transfusions. X- Linked Disorders Duchenne muscular dystrophy Weakening and wasting away of muscles 1 in 3,500 males under age 20 Yes/Yes Crippling, often fatal by age 20. Haemophilia Blood does not clot readily. Although usually the result of X-linked gene, also occurs by spontaneous mutation 1 in 10,000 live births of males Yes/Yes, if not spontaneous mutation Possible crippling and death from internal bleeding. Transfusions ameliorate effects. Dominant Disorders Neurofibromatosis Nervous system disorder, causing tumors on nerves and other abnormalities. Usually inherited, but 30–50% of cases arise through spontaneous mutation 1 in 3,000 births Yes/Yes, if not spontaneous mutation Symptoms are highly variable and may include cafe? au lait spots, benign tumors on peripheral nerves, optic nerve tumors, learning disabilities. Treatment by surgery may be possible. Chromosomal Disorders – result of a breakdown in process of genetic transmission (meiosis) affecting chromosomes in germ cells Down Syndrome Extra copy of chromosome 21 results in mental and physical retardation, distinctive physical characteristics, and susceptibility to certain medical conditions 1 in 1,000 live births in U.S. Yes/N.A. Amniocentesis Medical conditions monitored and treated; special education to develop skills and independence. Depending on severity and complications, survival into 60s is possible. Klinefelter syndrome Most common chromosomal disorder Extra X chromosome in males (XXY) results in incomplete development of sex organs and secondary sex characteristics -Fail to show signs of sexual maturity (facial hair, deep voice, sex organs [sterile]; most have cognitive defects 1 in every 500– 1,000 males born in U.S. Yes/N.A. Treatment by testosterone replacement therapy at puberty can be beneficial. Most lead normal lives, although with increased risk for certain cancers and heart disease. Turner syndrome Lack of an X chromosome (XO) in females. Common symptoms include short stature, failure to develop secondary sex characteristics 1 in 2,500 females Yes/N.A. Growth hormone and estrogen therapies can facilitate growth and development. Most women lead normal lives but are infertile. Mutations and Genetic Abnormalities Gene pool: total variety of genetic information passed by a sexually reproducing population Mutations that occur in germ cells can be passed on through generations and alter gene pool Ex. Spontaneous mutation Mutation: alteration in the molecular structure of an individual’s DNA Mutation occurs - errors in chromosomal replication during either meiosis/mitosis, exposure to external agents such as chemicals or radiation (carcinogens) Most mutations are lethal, rather than adaptive, result in miscarriages Every year 6% of births worldwide (8 million children) born with genetic abnormalities, 303 000 newborn deaths within 4 weeks of delivery Preconception tests: analysis of parents’ DNA using blood or saliva samples to determine the risk of genetic disorders Prenatal tests: conducted during the pregnancy itself, taking samples from embryo or fetus to determine genetic disorders Amniocentesis: needle is inserted through the mother’s abdomen and uterine wall and then into the amniotic sac, withdrawing amniotic fluid containing fetal cells to analyze (down syndrome) Weeks 14-16 during pregnancy in conjunction with ultrasound invasive chorionic villus sampling (CVS): samples tissue from the placenta, attached to uterine wall and connects through umbilical cord done at 8 weeks invasive noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD): prenatal test samples mothers blood and extracts fetal blood cells to analyze for genetic disorders – down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and hemophilia Newborn Tests: Draw blood by pricking baby foot, to screen for number of genetic disorders, including phenylketonuria, sickle-cell anemia, and cystic fibrosis. Recessive disorders Phenylketonuria (PKU): Recessive Disorder Inheritance of specific genetic material Severe intellectual disability if it is not treated, cannot metabolize phenylalanine, amino acid in milk, eggs, bread, fish. Brain-cell development is retarded when AA builds up Infants treated with low phenylalanine diets, however does not prevent the effects of PKU entirely – timing of treatment is crucial – if not restricted by time 1-3 months old, brain already suffered Down Syndrome: Chromosomal Disorder Disruption in the normal process of genetic transmission – trisomy-21 (extra) More than 95% down syndrome children have extra chromosome on 21 Physical characteristics: slanting eyes and fold of eyelids; a rather flat facial profile; ears located lower than normal; a short neck; a protruding tongue; dental irregularities; short, broad hands; a crease running all the way across the palm; small, curved fingers; and unusually wide-spaced toes. Children more likely to suffer from heart, ear, and eye problems, more susceptible to leukemia and respiratory infections Down syndrome causes unknown; Condition strongly associated with older parents, especially mothers (>40) Special educated at early age can help improve – variations in the environment lead to range of possible phenotypes Boy born with extra (XXY) or (XYY) Girls can be born with XO or XXX genotype Klinefelter Syndrome: Disorder of Sex Chromosomes Most common sex-linked disorder, males born with at least one extra X chromosome (XXY) X chromosome, is brittle and breaks into two or more pieces Sterile, do not sexually mature Most have speech, language, and cognitive defects, having problems in school or work Testosterone treatments to help – positive effects Genetic counsellors: Work in medical clinics or hospitals Often specialize in area such as cancer, heart disease, brain disorders Rising need for genetic counsellors due to new knowledge of inherited diseases and advancements in genetic testing American Pregnancy Association recommends counselling for couples whose offspring may be at a risk for genetic disorders Translate technical medical information to couples, assists in couples planning and informed decision making, helps connect with resources, provides emotional support and counselling The Phenotype: From Genes to Traits Phenotypic Plasticity: important question, the degree to which the phenotype is open to influence by the environment rather than determined by the genotype Low plasticity traits: eye colour, genotype strongly influential High plasticity Traits: phenotype influenced by the environment and is less predictable ‘fork in the road’ can go any path Canalized: trait that follows a strictly defined path, regardless of most environmental and genetic variations (low plasticity) – canalization Walking, speaking, forming friendships Interaction of gene and the environment changes over the lifetime – the landscape is not stable over the life course of an individual Exposure to toxins during the prenatal period, for example, can substantially alter the landscape in ways that change the course of developing phenotypes, resulting in physical deformities, mental retardation, and other disorders Development outcome can be common among different children despite vast differences in how and where they grow up Due to tight control that genotypes have over the developing phenotype Heritability Gene-behaviour relationship is complex Ex. Shyness influenced by multiple genes and environment Genetically influenced – the role of genes with respect to phenotypic traits, rather than ‘genetically caused’ Estimating Heritability Heritability: measure of the degree to which a variation in a particular trait among individuals in a specific population is related to genetic differences among those individuals (not resistant) Statistical methods often used to calculate correlations between measures High correlations = high heritability Height heritability in North Americans = 90% due to genetic factors, reason for this due to lack of environmental diversity (adequate nutrition and healthcare for almost everyone) Studying Heritability DNA similarities Children share 50% DNA with each parent Siblings share 50% with each other Half siblings share 25% Monozygotic twins share 100% DNA If extent of similarity correlates with degree of genetic closeness, trait is highly heritable Kinship studies: (blood related) studies that use naturally occurring conditions provided by kinship relations to estimate genetic and environmental contributions to a phenotypic trait Three main types of research designs used in kinship studies: family, twin, and adoption studies Family Study: compares members of the same family to determine how similar they are on a given trait Relatives who live together in a household, share genes and same environment Twin Study: groups of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins of the same sex are compared to each other and to other family members for similarity on a given trait More precise estimates of genetic and environmental contributions MZ twins should show greater similarity on the trait than to DZ twins Manel Esteller: Twin study Found that phenotypic traits of identical MZ twins become increasingly strong as twins grow older, and greater after living separately in adulthood due to environment, experiences, social factors Adoption Study: focuses on children who have been reared apart from their biological parents Some compare twins or other siblings who have been adopted into different families, others compare children and their adoptive/biological parents Purpose: to determine if adopted children are more similar to biological parents or adoptive parents / siblings Study Findings Degree of similarity among kin correlates with degree of genetic similarity; pattern shown for characteristics such as ADHD, intelligence, personality traits, antisocial behaviour, and susceptibility to schizophrenia Problems with Kinship studies Children within a family do not share the same family environment Age, birth order, and gender can all affect Parents treat each child differently Siblings offer different environments for each other Siblings have different teachers, friends, and experiences Twin studies: MZ twins may receive more similar treatment than DZ twins therefore similar due to environment Adoptive studies: siblings adopted separately, not clear that environments are significantly different, so the extent to which adopted children are similar to their biological families may not be entirely due to genetic but also environmental similarities Genes, Phenotypes, and Human Behaviour Waddington’s image of ball rolling down landscape is limited (fork in the road) How the landscape if formed and re-formed over development Can suggest that developing individuals play a small role in their own development, when this is far from the case Idea fails to adequately capture how the individuals cultural and social environments form and transform landscape over time Niche Construction Niche Construction: active shaping and modifying of individuals environments (niches) by the in