Animal Development

ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT A. The Stages of Early Embryonic Development 1. From egg to organism, an animal’s form develops gradually: the concept of epigenesis Preformation: the egg or sperm contains an embryo that is a preformed miniature adult. Epigenesis: the form of an animal emerges from a relatively formless egg. An organism’s development is primarily determined by the genome of the zygote and the organization of the egg cytoplasm. 2. Fertilization activates the egg and brings together the nuclei of sperm and egg Sea urchins are models for the study of the early development of deuterostomes. Sea urchin eggs are fertilized externally. Sea urchin eggs are surrounded by a jelly coat. • The Acrosomal Reaction. Acrosomal reaction: when exposed to the jelly coat the sperm’s acrosome discharges its contents by exocytosis. Hydrolytic enzymes enable the acrosomal process to penetrate the egg’s jelly coat. The tip of the acrosomal process adheres to the vitelline layer just external to the egg’s plasma membrane. The sperm and egg plasma membranes fuse and a single sperm nucleus enters the egg’s cytoplasm. Na+ channels in the egg’s plasma membrane open. Na+ flows into the egg and the membrane depolarizes: fast block to polyspermy. • The Cortical Reaction. Fusion of egg and sperm plasma membranes triggers a signal-transduction pathway. Ca2+ from the egg’s ER is released into the cytosol and propagates as a wave across the fertilized egg—IP3 and DAG are produced. IP3 opens ligand-gated channels in the ER and the released Ca2+ stimulates the opening of other channels. High concentrations of Ca2+ cause cortical granules to fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents into the perivitelline space. The vitelline layer separates from the plasma membrane. An osmotic gradient draws water into the perivitelline space, swelling it and pushing it away from the plasma membrane. The vitelline layer hardens into the fertilization envelope: a component of the slow block to polyspermy. The plasma membrane returns to normal and the fast block to polyspermy no longer functions. Activation of the Egg. High concentrations of Ca2+ in the egg stimulate an increase in the rates of cellular respiration and protein synthesis. In sea urchins, DAG activates a protein that transports H+ out of the egg. The reduced pH may be indirectly responsible for the egg’s metabolic responses to fertilization. In the meantime, back at the sperm nucleus... The sperm nucleus swells and merges with the egg nucleus—>diploid nucleus of the zygote. DNA synthesis begins and the first cell division occurs. • Fertilization in Mammals. Capacitation, a function of the female reproductive system, enhances sperm function. A capacitated sperm migrates through a layer of follicle cells before it reaches the zona pellucida. Binding of the sperm cell induces an acrosomal reaction similar to that seen in the sea urchin. Enzymes from the acrosome enable the sperm cell to penetrate the zona pellucida and fuse with the egg’s plasma membrane. The entire sperm enters the egg. The egg membrane depolarizes: functions as a fast block to polyspermy. A cortical reaction occurs. Enzymes from cortical granules catalyze alterations to the zona pellucida: functions as a slow block to polyspermy. The envelopes of both the egg and sperm nuclei disperse. The chromosomes from the two gametes share a common spindle apparatus during the first mitotic division of the zygote. 3. Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller cells Cleavage follows fertilization. The zygote is partitioned into blastomeres. Each blastomere contains different regions of the undivided cytoplasm and thus different cytoplasmic determinants. Except for mammals, most animals have both eggs and zygotes with a definite polarity. Thus, the planes of division follow a specific pattern relative to the poles of the zygote. Polarity is defined by the heterogeneous distribution of substances such as mRNA, proteins, and yolk. Yolk is most concentrated at the vegetal pole and least concentrated at the animal pole. In some animals, the animal pole defines the anterior end of the animal. In amphibians a rearrangement of the egg cytoplasm occurs at the time of fertilization. The plasma membrane and cortex rotate toward the point of sperm entry. The gray crescent is exposed and marks the dorsal surface of the embryo. Cleavage occurs more rapidly in the animal pole than in the vegetal pole. In both sea urchins and frogs the first two cleavages are vertical. The third division is horizontal. The result is an eight-celled embryo with two tiers of four cells. Continued cleavage produces the morula. A blastocoel forms within the morula—>blastula In birds the yolk is so plentiful that it restricts cleavage to the animal pole: meroblastic cleavage. In animals with less yolk there is complete division of the egg: holoblastic cleavage. 4. Gastrulation rearranges the blastula to form a three-layered embryo with a primitive gut Gastrulation rearranges the embryo into a triploblastic gastrula. The embryonic germ layers are the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Sea urchin gastrulation. Begins at the vegetal pole where individual cells enter the blastocoel as mesenchyme cells. The remaining cells flatten and buckle inwards: invagination. Cells rearrange to form the archenteron. The open end, the blastopore, will become the anus. An opening at the other end of the archenteron will form the mouth of the digestive tube. Frog gastrulation produces a triploblastic embryo with an archenteron. Where the gray crescent was located, invagination forms the dorsal lip of the blastopore. Cells on the dorsal surface roll over the edge of the dorsal lip and into the interior of the embryo: involution. As the process is completed the lip of the blastopore encircles a yolk plug. 5. In organogenesis, the organs of the animal body form from the three embryonic germ layers The derivatives of the ectoderm germ layer are: Epidermis of skin, and its derivatives Epithelial lining of the mouth and rectum. Cornea and lens of the eyes. The nervous system; adrenal medulla; tooth enamel; epithelium of the pineal and pituitary glands. The endoderm germ layer contributes to: The epithelial lining of the digestive tract (except the mouth and rectum). The epithelial lining of the respiratory system. The pancreas; thyroid; parathyroids; thymus; the lining of the urethra, urinary bladder, and reproductive systems. Derivatives of the mesoderm germ layer are: The notochord. The skeletal and muscular systems. The circulatory and lymphatic systems. The excretory system. The reproductive system (except germ cells). And the dermis of skin; lining of the body cavity; and adrenal cortex. 6. Amniote embryos develop in a fluid-filled sac within a shell or uterus The amniote embryo is the solution to reproduction in a dry environment. Shelled eggs of reptiles and birds. Uterus of placental mammals. Avian Development. Cleavage is meroblastic, or incomplete. Cell division is restricted to a small cap of cytoplasm at the animal pole. Produces a blastodisc, which becomes arranged into the epiblast and hypoblast that bound the blastocoel, the avian version of a blastula. During gastrulation, some cells of the epiblast migrate towards the interior of the embryo through the primitive streak. Some of these cells move laterally to form the mesoderm, while others move downward to form the endoderm. In early organogenesis the archentreron is formed as lateral folds pinch the embryo away from the yolk. The yolk stalk (formed mostly by hypoblast cells) will keep the embryo attached to the yolk. The notochord, neural tube, and somites form as they do in frogs. The three germ layers and hypoblast cells contribute to the extraembyonic membrane system. The four extraembryonic membranes are the yolk sac, amnion, chorion, and allantois. Cells of the yolk sac digest yolk providing nutrients to the embryo. The amnion encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled amniotic sac which protects the embryo from drying out. The chorion cushions the embryo against mechanical shocks. The allantois functions as a disposal sac for uric acid. Mammalian Development. Recall: The egg and zygote do not exhibit any obvious polarity. Holoblastic cleavage occurs in the zygote. Gastrulation and organogenesis follow a pattern similar to that seen in birds and reptiles. Relatively slow cleavage produces equal-sized blastomeres. Compaction occurs at the eight-cell stage. The result is cells that tightly adhere to one another. Step 1: about 7 days after fertilization. The blastocyst reaches the uterus. The inner cell mass is surrounded by the trophoblast. Step 2: The trophoblast secretes enzymes that facilitate implantation of the blastocyst. The trophoblast thickens, projecting into the surrounding endometrium; the inner cell mass forms the eiblast and hypoblast. The embryo will develop almost entirely from the epiblast. Step 3: Extraembryonic membranes develop. The trophoblast gives rise to the chorion, which continues to expand into the endometrium, and the epiblast begins to form the amnion. Mesodermal cells are derived from the epiblast. Step 4: Gastrulation: inward movement of epiblast cells through a primitive streak form mesoderm and endoderm. Once again, the embryonic membranes – homologous with those of shelled eggs. Chorion: completely surrounds the embryo and other embryonic membranes. Amnion: encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled amniotic cavity. Yolk sac: found below the developing embryo. Develops from the hypoblast. Site of early formation of blood cells which later migrate to the embryo. Allantois: develops as an outpocketing of the embryo’s rudimentary gut. Incorporated into the umbilical cord, where it forms blood vessels. Organogenesis begins with the formation of the neural tube, notochord, and somites. B. The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Morphogenesis and Differentiation in Animals 1. Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and adhesion Changes in cell shape usually involve the reorganization of the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is also involved in cell movement. Cell crawling is involved in convergent extension. The movements of convergent extension probably involve the extracellular matrix (ECM). ECM fibers may direct cell movement. Some ECM substances, such a fibronectins, help cells move by providing anchorage for crawling. Other ECM substances may inhibit movement in certain directions. The role of the ECM in amphibian gastrulation. Fibronectin fibers line the roof of the blastocoel. Cells at the free edge of the mesodermal sheet migrate along these fibers. Holding cells together. The role of the ECM in holding cells together. Glyocoproteins attach migrating cells to underlying ECM when the cells reach their destination. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), located on cell surfaces, bind to CAMs on other cells. Differences in CAMs regulate morphogenetic movement and tissue binding. Cadherins are also involved in cell-to-cell adhesion. Require the presence of calcium for proper function. 2. The developmental fate of cells depends on cytoplasmic determinants and cell-cell induction: a review In many animal species (mammals may be a major exception), the heterogeneous distribution of cytoplasmic determinants in the unfertilized egg leads to regional differences in the early embryo Subsequently, in induction, interactions among the embryonic cells themselves induce changes in gene expression. These interactions eventually bring about the differentiation of the many specialized cell types making up a new animal. 3. Fate mapping can reveal cell genealogies in chordate embryos Fate maps illustrate the developmental history of cells. “Founder cells” give rise to specific tissues in older embryos. As development proceeds, a cell’s developmental potential becomes restricted. 4. The eggs of most vertebrates have cytoplasmic determinants that help establish the body axes and differences among cells of the early embryo Polarity and the Basic Body Plan. In mammals, polarity may be established by the entry of the sperm into the egg. In frogs, the animal and vegetal pole determine the anterior-posterior body axis. Restriction of Cellular Potency. The fate of embryonic cells is affected by both the distribution of cytoplasmic determinants and by cleavage pattern. 5. Inductive signals drive differentiation and pattern formation in vertebrates Induction: the influence of one set of cells on a neighboring group of cells. Functions by affecting gene expression. Results in the differentiation of cells into a specific type of tissue. The “Organizer” of Spemann and Mangold. Grafting the dorsal lip of one embryo onto the ventral surface of another embryo results in the development of a second notochord and neural tube at the site of the graft. Spemann referred to the dorsal lip as a primary organizer. An example of the molecular basis of induction: Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP-4) is a growth factor. In amphibians, organizer cells inactivate BMP-4 on the dorsal side of the embryo. Pattern Formation in the Vertebrate Limb. Induction plays a major role in pattern formation. Positional information, supplied by molecular cues, tells a cell where it is relative to the animals body axes. Limb development in chicks as a model of pattern formation. Wings and legs begin as limb buds. Each component of the limb is oriented with regard to three axes: proximal-distal anterior-posterior dorsal-ventra. Organizer regions. Apical ectodermal ridge (AER). Secretes fibroblast growth factor (FGF) proteins. Required for limb growth and patterning along the proximal-distal axis. Required for pattern formation along the dorsal-ventral axis. Zone of polarizing activity (ZPA). Secretes Sonic hedgehog, a protein growth factor. Required for pattern formation of the limb along the anterior-posterior axis. Homeobox-containing (Hox) genes play a role in specifying the identity of regions of the limb, as well as the body as a whole. In summary, pattern formation is a chain of events involving cell signaling and differentiation.