Leadership course full.docx

Learning about Leadership Module Learning Objectives understand and work with the circles of leader development acknowledge that leading is about change understand the structure of the book and how it relates to the circles of leadership development The outer circle is based upon acknowledging your experience of leadership in organizations reflecting upon that experience examining those experiences and reflections against the theories of leadership and then planning how you might plan to change your own leadership and leadership in your organization The inner circle is about you Beginning with your personal experience of being a leader reflecting upon that experience examining those reflections against theories of persons as leaders and then planning to change and develop yourself as a leader Warren Bennis a noted writer on leadership borrowed William Shakespeare s idea of the seven stages of a man s life to consider the parallel stages of a leader s development Three types of leadership - First came traditional by which he meant that the leader s authority came from social political and institutional continuity Examples are kings tribal leaders religious leaders and such Second was rational legal where the leader s authority came from constitutions of nations and organizations Examples are presidents prime ministers trade union officers etc Third was charismatic where the leader s authority came from inside the person and was accepted by those who were inspired to follow Accidental leadership will not be focused upon any dynamic of change but may like a stopped clock find a correct solution with the passage of time Preservative leadership will seek to keep the traditions and business practices intact perhaps with considerable attention to both the effectiveness of those practices and the efficiency of the business processes Enabling leadership will work to allow others probably more junior but not necessarily so to use their own leadership in their work Strategic leadership will be concerned with purposes and their achievement in the evolving context in which the business seeks to operate The normative culture is where all thought and action is infused with attention to and debates about values and people belong because they subscribe to the values The instrumental cultures are those where people belong because they can get something they want and are prepared to compromise in order to get it business organizations have much of this characteristic Coercive organizations require and force people to belong prisons and armies are such Top leaders it appears tend to be very careful to listen to a range of views and relatively slow to come to a view It seems that judgment is more important for them as it forms the context within which decisions can be made Here we get a glimpse of the difference between policy and strategy Policy is of the whole society of the whole community and shapes the values beliefs and assumptions of the organization Trait Theory of Leadership Chapter From OB Trait approach to leadership - Leader traits are referred to personal characteristics physical social background intellectual personality work orientation interpersonal skills Other traits logical thinking putting ides into simpler forms persuading others explaining things in unique ways persistence treating setbacks as small mistakes working long hours trying to succeed against odds empowerment getting people excited about goals being energetic and enthusiastic making subordinates believe they can achieve excellence Self-Control working under heavy pressure remaining even-tempered resisting intimidation Weakness of Trait approach failure to take into account the situation in which leadership occurs Leadership is an influence process and can not occur the context of interpersonal relations Leader traits are related to who gets promoted than who is an effective leader Leadership Book Leadership theme involves influencing the attitudes beliefs behaviours and feelings of other people Trait Theory Also called Great man s was the first approach discussed Focuses exclusively on the leader not the situation or the follower s therefore more straight forward Concerned with what traits are important and who possesses these traits Theory argues that it is the leader and his personality and other char That are central to leadership Concerned with uncovering the particular characteristics that differentiated leaders from non leaders to find what captured the admiration of other people Leaders are born with special characteristics rather than made org can develop methods to identify leaders and find ways to develop and enhance traits in others Also considered to be a source of personal awareness assess own traits Methods of identifying leadership traits Biographical analysis analyzing the traits of historical heroes interviews with successful leaders Problems with this approach Most individual selected are historical which limits the analysis to historical information Traits identifies are the one author would consider to be important for a leader and may overlook other obvious traits transferability would these traits have relevance in today s society Physical Characterises Correlating with height weight voice Analyzing skull shape brain structure and neurological make up Psychological characteristics Correlating leadership with level of personality traits extroversion dominance self reliance level of intelligence level of emotional intelligence External perceptions Identifying leadership traits valued by followers and particular cultures Testing for traits Physical measurements head size feeling bumps on heads Also use graphology and handwriting to assess personality Psychometric tests can be administered to large of people validated and assessed for validity Often test on a bipolar scale Big traits open-mindedness conscientiousness agreeableness emotional stability and extroversion Key issue is how to define a trait and then devising an appropriate method to measure it The tests have not been able to help establish a profile of psychological traits with highly successful leaders but it does tell us that possessing certain traits and characteristics are an advantage for leaders Physical traits argued that physical characteristics alone are insufficient to explain why some people become leaders persuasive communication does seem to be influenced by the image and the perceived credibility of those delivering the message Physical char may help but do not guarantee success Personality characteristics Intelligence and leadership- studies find that leaders tend to be more intelligent dominant self-confident and knowledgeable of the task than non-leaders Extremely high IQ scores are not associated with effective leadership we want leaders to be intelligent but not too much Summary of specific traits for leadership success Stodgill Mann Stodgill Lord Kirkpatrick and Locke Hogan Intelligence Alertness Sociability Persistence Insight Self-confidence Initiative Dominance Masculinity Adjustment Intelligence Conservatism extroversion Sociability Tolerance Responsibility Initiative Persistence Achievement Insight Self-confidence Cooperativeness Influence Intelligence Masculinity dominance Drive Motivation Integrity confidence cognitive ability task knowledge Extroversion Energy Agreeableness conscientiousness Traits from the follower s perspective What do you look for in a leader Honest forward looking inspiring competent fair minded supportive broadminded intelligent Effective leadership does not necessarily equate with good ethical outcomes and that leadership can have dark sides Personality traits of successful business leaders Cooper and Highley Loner attitude and a sense of marginalization Motivation and drive leading to abundance of energy and stamina Deep-seated belief system strong sense of mission or cause early responsibility personal charisma well developed people skills ability to communicate and to be open and honest a childhood that involved insecurity and loss Dulewicz and Herbert identified high flyers scored highly on the following dimensions Assertiveness Risk taking Achievement Motivation Competitiveness Psychological workplace needs of successful leaders - psychological needs are considered to be a powerful motivator of human behaviour Three most important Need for achievement desire to overcome obstacles and strive to do something difficult quickly and well Less effective because they put their own success first Need for Power desire for control and influence Need for affiliation desire to form good relationships and sense of belonging Causes the leader to put their popularity first Social and emotional intelligence Many leadership descriptions emphasize that leadership is about winning the minds and hearts of other Winning minds is an intellectual task and requires application of cognitive skills reasoning logic Winning hearts is an emotional task and requires exercise of social and emotional intelligence Goleman suggests that EI is more predictive of leadership achievement life success and general well being than cognitive intelligence IQ EI is demonstrated by Self awareness of one s own emotions Leaders confident and know what motivates them Aware of situations that cause them to be negative Easily recognise when they are sad happy angry or frightened Self management- feelings are able to control anger and disruptive emotions while maintaining their integrity Do not become overwhelmed by negative emotions Awareness of others- sensitive to others and recognised their efforts and contribution Know when to speak when to stay silent Pursing the goal- able to achieve high standards high level initiative even in the face of adversity Relationship with others- ability to influence others in non-threatening way and do not avoid dealing with feelings Culture and leadership Traits Leadership categorization theory believes that the better the match between the leadership concepts held by followers and the leader s display of those attributes the more likely the followers will see the leader as a leader Most commonly Identified Leadership traits Physical attractiveness Imp to remember that physical presentation can easily fade away if lacking in other leadership traits Intelligence Confidence Social Skills Integrity most essential the desire to lead essential trait Learning Summary Trait theory attempts to understand leadership effectiveness through the identification of personal characteristics such as personality body shape or intelligence which correlate positively with successful leadership Trait theory is an attractive way for organizations to study leadership If the traits that successful leaders possess can be identified then those traits can be used to identify future leaders An initial approach to trait research was through examining the biographies of great even heroic leaders However the practical application of such studies has been limited Physical assessment of leaders is a second approach Although some approaches such as measuring head shape brain structure and so on have been largely discredited there does appear to be some correlation between leadership effectiveness and the individual s physical makeup For example height appears to be an advantage Psychometric testing has been used to identify the relationship between leadership success and a variety of psychological characteristics such as intelligence personality traits psychological needs and emotional intelligence When followers are asked which traits are required in effective leaders they tend to identify traits such as honesty being forward-looking being inspiring and being competent and fair-minded Such traits are not commonly assessed through psychometric tests A leader who exhibits the traits of a successful leader may not however necessarily be an ethical leader see Module Traits valued in leaders are often somewhat different from culture to culture see Module Although psychometric testing is commonly used to test for leadership traits it largely fulfils a supporting role in the selection of leaders as its predictive qualities appear to be quite limited Traits commonly found to correlate with successful leadership from across a variety of studies include physical attractiveness intelligence confidence social skills integrity and the desire to lead Behaviour Theory of Leadership Chapter Behavioral theory What the leader does rather than traits Theory holds that leaders are made not born Hawthorne Effect Study of women production works at GE Reason for the productivity was that the women were receiving extra attention and were seen as having status within the workforce in essence they felt special Autocratic Strong direction Democratic receive considerable support advice and encouragement from leader laissez-faire given no task guidance and interacted minimally with the leader From Lewin study - effective leadership had two distinct dimensions the ability to accomplish a given task and the ability to develop motivating and satisfying relationships with those one leads From Lewin s work we can easily come to the conclusion that a democratic leadership style is best Leadership theories Douglas McGregor - The Theory X direct work and closely monitor the workforce because people tend to be lazy by nature lack ambition prefer to let others be responsible and resist change Theory X manager would be hard or strong keeping tight control Theory Y holds that if employees have become passive and resistant it is because of their experience in organisations Management s role is to arrange the working environment and methods of operations so that people feel trusted take on responsibility and achieve their personal goals by directing their efforts toward achieving organisational goals Blake and Mouton s Managerial Grid two factor leadership grid They propose that there are five important positions on the grid to consider Impoverished management Low on consideration and low on initiating structure Nondirective and nonparticipative Uninspiring and ineffective leadership Country club management High on consideration and low on initiating structure Highly participative but nondirective Individuals might find working with such a leader to be a pleasant and undemanding experience at a personal level but lacking in challenge and stimulation The leader may be well liked but ineffectual Organisation wo man A middle of the road style of leadership associated with promoting moderate rather than high performance Leader tries to balance the contradiction between production and the needs of individuals Lack of strong direction often leads to team complacency and lack of challenge Authority obedience Low on consideration and high on initiating structure Highly taskdirective Leader maintains close supervision and control over team members Promotes compliance rather than task commitment or high levels of involvement Team management Both high on consideration and high on initiating structure Promotes high levels of task commitment and relationships based on trust and respect The best style of management to which leaders should aspire Contigency Theories of leadership An influential theory of situational leadership is that proposed by Tannenbaum and Schmidt it conceptualises leadership behaviour along a continuum dependent upon the degree to which leaders use their authority Tannenbaum and Schmidt do not advocate one best way of leadership but rather emphasise the need for leader flexibility The four styles may be summarised as follows Tells This is an authoritarian style The role of those they lead is simply to follow these instructions This style is based on the assumption that followers have no useful role to play in decisionmaking possibly because of lack of ability knowledge or motivation Sells A selling style is little different from a telling style except that instructions and directions are articulated in a softer and more persuasive way Leaders still take control and make decisions The use of persuasion represents an attempt to try and secure willing compliance rather than simply impose the decision Consults Leaders consult with followers and obtain their views These views are taken into account but leaders reserve the right to make the final decision which may or may not be in line with the views of others Joins This is a totally participative style Leaders join with followers to make a decision in which all views are represented Situational Leadership A very popular development of the contingency approach to leadership is Hersey and Blanchard s model of situational leadership which rests on similar basic assumptions There is no single allpurpose leadership style but rather what is appropriate depends upon the nature of the follower s and the demands and requirements of the task The leader s behaviour has two independent components directive behaviour and supportive behaviour - Directive behaviourrelates to the extent to which the leader provides structure and guidance concerning the task Supportive behaviour relates to the extent to which the leader supports and acts with consideration towards followers The model emphasises four leadership styles dependent upon one major situational factor the developmental level of the follower for any given task three factors having the technical knowledge skills or competence to execute the task the level of commitment to pursue the task and the level of confidence that he or she will be successful at the task The four leadership styles that are to be matched with the respective follower development levels are S Telling or directing the follower is judged to need clear direction S Selling or coaching follower s requires both direction and support S Participating or supporting follower is considered to have adequate mastery of the skills required for the job but some support is required S Delegating This follower will have mastered the task has confidence and so requires only that the task be delegated with little requirement for supervision - Fielders s contingency model Fiedler developed a measure called the least preferred coworker LPC scale Leaders who attain a high LPC score are considered to have high selfesteem needs and so derive considerable satisfaction from interpersonal relationships They will expend a lot of energy in providing support and consideration to improve relationships in situations where relationships are poor In contrast leaders with low LPC scores are considered to have high task accomplishment needs and so derive considerable satisfaction from task performance and achieving objectives their primary motivation will be to focus on task accomplishment theory suggests that effective leadership behaviour is dependent upon both the favourability of the situation and the degree of situational control Rather the situation itself should be changed to fit the leader or the leader should be assigned to situations that best fit his or her style Leadermember relations good poor The degree to which a leader is trusted and liked by group members and their willingness to support the leader and follow his her guidance the group atmosphere Task structure high low The extent to which the task is clearly defined for the group and the extent to which it can be carried out by detailed instructions or standard procedures Highly structured tasks give the leader more control whereas nebulous tasks diminish the leader s control Position power The amount of power and influence the leader has in the organisation including the ability to give out rewards and punishments If the leader can hire and fire he or she has considerable position power PATH GOAL Theory - It is influenced by theories of motivation particularly what is termed expectancy valence theory The path goal theory of leadership maintains that a leader should exercise the style of leadership that is most effective in influencing employees perceptions of the goals they need to achieve and the path or way in which they should be achieved This is in contrast to the situational approach which indicates that the leader should adapt to the development level of the follower as well as to the contingency approach which emphasises matching the leadership style with situational variables House identified four main types of leadership behaviour directive giving clear instructions as to what the goal is and the way they should go about accomplishing it supportive encouraging and supporting individuals in accomplishing the goal participative involving individuals in the goalsetting process and listening to their opinions and views achievement oriented setting challenging goals and building confidence in followers to achieve those goals An advantage of path goal theory is that it is uncomplicated and relatively straightforward criticism of path goal theory is that it is only partially supported by research conducted to support its validity another concern is that path goal theory may focus too heavily on the actions of the leader at the expense of the followers With such an approach followers could become overly dependent on the leader at the expense of their own development Summary - some theorists suggest that the style should be determined by the follower s development level situational leadership while other theorists submit that leadership style is probably fixed and therefore the leader should be assigned to a situation where he or she can be most successful contingency theory Yet another behaviour theory school of thought is that an analysis of the follower s goal orientation combined with the relative clarity of the task will determine the most effective leadership approach path goal theory Learning Summary Behavioral leadership theory contrasts with trait theory in that it studies leaders behaviors what they do rather than their personal characteristics Behavior theory holds that leaders are made and therefore leadership effectiveness can be learned by developing and employing appropriate skills and behaviors Early research identified two key dimensions of leadership behavior a focus on achieving the task at hand and a focus on developing the relationship with the follower Douglas McGregor Theory X Theory Y developed the idea that leaders would tend to focus either on task or on relationship but that to focus on one dimension would be at the expense of the other Blake and Mouton submitted that a strong leadership focus on both the task and the relationship was the best style of leadership Contingency theory emerged in the s and considers what kind of leadership style would be effective in what kind of situation Hersey and Blanchard s situational leadership model became the most widely used model of behavioral theory which diagnoses the follower s task development level before selecting the most appropriate leadership behaviors The contingency model Fiedler proposed that leadership styles are relatively fixed being effective in certain situations but less so in others So leaders should be placed in situations where they will likely achieve success Path goal theory marries leadership theory with motivational theory so that the motivational needs of the follower are considered along with the work situation in selecting an effective leadership approach Behavioral leadership theory is intuitively appealing as most leaders will attribute much of their success to developmental experiences and it also supports the idea that organizational time and resources should be placed against the development of its leadership capability Transformation Theory of Leadership engaging Hearts and Minds Chapter Transformation Theory of leadership In order to influence the attitudes beliefs and behaviors of others a leader had to engage the emotions of those they sought to influence Leader could no longer rely on positional power only new leaders had to earn their influence - Transformation leadership theory is associated with Burns and Bass Kouzes and Posner described five practices of exemplary leadership Model the way Inspired a shared vision Challenge the process Enable other to act Encourage the heart Transactional Leadership Transformational leadership The traditional theories in modules were described as transactional because they rely on the transactions to generate results With transactions leaders followers comply with the demands of the task and leaders rewash the effort and compliance Approach is based on rational exchange you do this and I will do this Leader appeal to the emotionality of the followers They inspire followers to put aside and transcend their own personal interests to work for the benefit of higher-order goals values and principles Engages the full person works by aggregating commitment through the leader Works by aggregating towards organizations vision its greater purpose Leadership is about managing efficiency Is truly about leadership that brings about change Behaviors are more effectives in turns of increased organizational commitment of followers increased effort and financial performance increased job satisfaction greater trust in management increased employee innovation harmony and good citizenship Lower levels of work stress and burnout How to asses the above behaviors Most sited measure is Multifactor Leadership questionnaire MLQ measures - individual s consideration intellectual stimulation charisma inspirational motivation Scales considered to comprise the components of transformational leadership include Leading and developing others Showing genuine concern for others Encouraging questioning critical and strategic thinking Encouraging change Leading the organization Networking Building a shared vision Creating a developmental culture Personal qualities Acting with integrity Decisive risk taking public sector only not a differentiator in private Sector Inspiring others Analytical and creative thinking Being entrepreneurial private sector only Research findings of Transformational Leadership - According to Bass leaders need to be capable of exercising both transformational and transactional leadership approaches particularly in relation to contingent reward Further he suggests that transformational leaders have less difficulty in adopting a transactional style than the other way around Transformational leadership and successful executives Bennis and Nanus and Tichy and DeVanna used similar methodologies open-ended questionnaires to interview chief executives at major corporations regarding their leadership practices They categorized and analyzed the responses to their interviews looked for commonalities and identified four common practices or strategies employed by their study group Vision These leaders created a clear realistic believable and attractive vision which pulled people into supporting organizational goals Followers felt empowered as significant contributors towards that vision Social architecture These leaders created a shared meaning that transformed values and culture so that employees accepted the new philosophy and direction of the organization Trust Not surprisingly these leaders were found to develop trust by setting an example exemplifying standards of behavior They were transparent in their beliefs stood by their promises and were seen to be eminently reliable even in times of uncertainty Positive self-regard Knowing their strengths and weaknesses the leaders capitalized on their strengths rather than dwelling on their limitations This process also appeared to have a similar impact on their followers Transformational Leadership and the management of change - Tichy and DeVanna studied how these executives had managed their organizations through periods of significant change perhaps brought about by rapid changes in technology competition economic trends and social changes and so on They found that these leaders had managed change through three stages Recognizing the need for change CEOs saw themselves as change agents with the responsibility for pointing out to the organization how it must change They tended to encourage dissent engage in objective assessment of the organization and benchmark their organization against others Creating a vision for change The vision was created not as an individual act of supremely creative inspiration but rather by bringing together different viewpoints within the organization This was seen to create a roadmap for the future which employees were eager to support Institutionalizing the change This involved the hard work of breaking down old methods and structures and finding people who were willing and able to develop new ones New groupings were often required and people were helped to find new roles for themselves that would support the new vision Transformational leadership appears to succeed because it empowers employees causing them to set and achieve higher aims In order to create the vision and implement the change they tend to be open to dissent and feedback be role models for their beliefs and be seen by followers as articulate competent and trustworthy Followers appear not only to want to support the goals set forth through the transformational leadership process but indeed to emulate the leader Charisma and transformational Leadership Special gift that certain individual posses giving the ability to do extraordinary things It is amongst the most important of transformational leadership Characteristics of a transformational leader - Charisma can only be validated through the actions f the followers House identified the characteristics of charismatic leaders as including dominance a strong desire to influence others a strong sense of one s own moral values and self-confidence According to Meindl charismatic leaders tend to emerge in times of social and political crisis when there is a great deal of psychological insecurity and lack of social cohesion It would seem that when times are troubled people look for a charismatic leader to come to their rescue and resolve disharmony House agreed that charismatic leaders are more likely to arise in times of distress and that in addition to certain personality characteristics they also exhibit certain behaviors Charismatic leaders set high expectations for their followers with an accompanying confidence that the followers can meet those expectations The goals tend to have moral or ideological overtones providing a sense of a higher purpose Charismatic leaders are strong role models for those beliefs Charismatic leaders appear to followers to be very competent Finally House points out that the result of charismatic leadership is that followers feel great warmth for the leader congruence with and trust in the leader s beliefs and an unquestioning acceptance of the leader and of course followers believe that their goals are worthy and achievable According to House et al charismatic leaders often are perceived as having a divine or semi divine quality have an unconditional acceptance of their authority and emotional commitment have hypnotic eyes and voice possess good oratory skills Behavior attributes of charismatic leaders Conger and Kanungo developed a model focusing on several behavioral stages that Stage The leader develops a vision of idealized change that moves beyond the status quo e g J F Kennedy had a vision of putting a man on the moon by the end of the s Initially to most people this seemed an impossible task Stage The leader communicates this belief and vision and motivates followers to go beyond the status quo and visualize this happening Stage The leader builds trust by exhibiting qualities such as expertise success risk taking and unconventional actions Stage The leader demonstrates ways to achieve the vision by means of empowerment behavior modeling for followers etc Similarly Conger and Kanungo describe five behavioral attributes of charismatic leaders Vision and articulation sensitivity to the environment sensitivity to member needs Personal risk taking performing unconventional behavior The research on successful leaders does not however universally support charisma as a necessary quality for leadership success Collins points out that companies with charismatic leaders for example Lee Iacocca at Chrysler tended to decline after the leader left because they tended to lead through strength of personality cult rather than through a strong leadership team Leadership Distance and Followers Perceptions - Boas Shamir has suggested that our notions of charisma may be different depending on how close we are to a leader Developing Transformational Leadership Bamberger and Meshoulam have argued that organizations can either make or buy transformational leaders The more viable practice for most organizations is to train and develop transformational leaders internally Bass proposed two methods for transformational leadership training Individual coaching The MLQ is completed by a manager s line reports The ratings are collected and presented to the leader in an individual counseling session and compared with self ratings The leader is given personal feedback and target goals are set Group workshops A group of leaders attend a workshop which incorporates the following activities Brainstorming the behaviors displayed by effective and or ineffective leaders This is then linked to concepts of transformational leadership theory Participants watch videos depicting a variety of leadership styles in action Action plans are developed Developing Transformational Leadership with Emotional Intelligence Individuals who are emotionally intelligent possess the ability to understand themselves and others And are able to adapt their behaviors to a given context There have been several recent studies e g Duckett and Macfarlane that have confirmed that emotional intelligence is associated with transformational leadership and increased performance Additional research has shown Slaski and Cartwright that emotional intelligence can be developed through training programmes Concerns About Transformational Leadership Concerns range from its misapplication to its conceptual clarity Unethical Charismatic Leaders a key concern about situational leadership is that leaders whose success comes through a great deal of charisma may be more able to abuse the power they are granted by their followers Because of this exceptional ability to influence others and in spite of their emphasis on a sense of higher purpose charismatic leaders may be successful in persuading followers toward ends that is not in the followers interest Charisma May Not Be SustainableThe use of charisma is quite central to the transformational leadership process Conger and Kanungo assert that charisma is not magical but can be learnt through training But charisma may be difficult to sustain on a day-to-day basis Charisma is more often associated with change agents than with those maintaining the status quo Does Transformational Leadership Focus Too Much on the Top another criticism of transformational leadership is its focus on leadership at the top perhaps to the exclusion of others The leader is seen to be a visionary and even though others may be involved the leader is too often seen as the change agent the one who has created and pursued the vision Therefore the concern is that it is elitist even antidemocratic Transformational Leadership s Lack of Conceptual Clarity A final weakness we shall note is in the conceptual clarity of the transformational leadership theory itself The theory is extremely broad based including envisioning managing change nurturing being a social architect being charismatic and so on Its parameters are difficult to define as it overlaps with so many other concepts of leadership It also tends to contrast transformational leadership with transactional leadership on an either or or even good bad basis rather than as a matter of degree Transformational Leadership in Context One of the strengths of transformational leadership theory is the view that leadership is a process between two individuals the leader and the follower and the needs of both parties are to be met The theory has intuitive appeal as well We are attracted to leaders who can paint a vision for the future that will involve and benefit us all Learning Summary Transformational leadership theory grew from concerns about the failure of traditional leadership practices in settings such as the war in Vietnam and the development of flatter organizational structures Transactional leadership relies on the rewards that leaders can provide to followers through their position in the organization Transformational leadership is in contrast to transactional leadership in that the focus is on the emotions of the follower winning hearts and minds Transformational leaders are described as charismatic and inspirational they are intellectually stimulating and show consideration Influential research of top executives who have been seen to be successful in the management of large-scale change has found that they tend to employ transformational leadership methods Charisma is a key attribute of transformational leaders Success has been noted in developing transformational leadership skills both through individual coaching and through group learning experiences Some of the concerns about transformational leadership theory are that charismatic leadership can be abused that the theory may focus too much on the executives in organizations at the expense of other levels of leadership and that it lacks conceptual clarity because it is so all encompassing Following Chapter Introduction The Importance of Followers Bennis elaborated his view of what constituted an effective follower a willingness to tell the truth a willingness to speak out to be other than the leader to share their best counsel with the leader all are also characteristics of good leaders Follett s view was that it was the responsibility of leaders to educate and train followers to be able to understand the goals and to be able to think for themselves and act in pursuance of those goals It was not the task of the leader to make all decisions or to give orders but rather to establish a mode of common purpose and common working as a basis for achievement Studies of Followers - Kinds of Followers Brown and Thornborrow asked whether organizations get the followers that they deserve These authors used Kelly s typology of different followers These were Effective and exemplary Think for themselves conduct work with energy self-starters problem solvers rated highly by superiors Survivors Are organization fence-sitters go along with leaders and adapt to any new circumstance Yes people Are not enterprising and are a little servile Sheep Are passive and unengaged lack initiative and a sense of responsibility just do what is asked of them Alienated Are independent in thinking but passive in their working perhaps become cynical and disgruntled They found too that the staff thought that followers were not born into that role but become followers as a result of work experiences and the staff also thought that they could be trained to be exemplary followers Transformational Relationships Leaders are not necessarily rational logical sensible and dependable people Many organizational problems originate in the inner world of the leaders their conflicts desires fantasies and defensive structures So we cannot expect transformational leadership or charismatic leadership to be easy or comfortable Follower Orientation Task and Relationship Situational favorability was defined as leader member relations the degree to which the leader feels accepted and supported by the group task structure the degree to which the task has clear-cut and programmed goals procedures measurable progress and success leader power the degree to which the formal position of leadership provided the power to reward and punish in order to obtain compliance from subordinates a transactional style The first two results shown were predicted from Fiedler but the third finding contradicted Fiedler The results can be mapped onto the leader follower theories in use drawn upon early in this module Followers performance was influenced by their traits and the work situation Relationships at Issue Mischa Popper suggested three kinds of leader and follower relationships regressive relations symbolic relations and developmental relations Regressive relations are rooted in the psychological process of projection an unconscious process The argument of Popper is that regressive relations are not formed on ideas but are rooted in primary urges anxieties and distress Symbolic relations grow out of content based meanings messages ideologies and values that a leader either represents or is expected to represent These can be deeply significant figures such as Jesus transitory figures such as pop stars or political figures such as the liberation leader Nelson Mandela Developmental relations derive from an idea based in good parenting Popper and Mayseless where the development stages of childhood to adulthood are understood and nurtured A developmental relationship may include the leader holding the projections of the followers and those of others without fighting them or colluding with them but when and where appropriate inviting those others to take back their projections and move to a position of mature dependence Followers Shaping Leaders Followers may shape leaders behavior A Relational Process school example The leaders were observed to share three positional characteristics they were people of importance they were central figures in communication networks and they had wide access to individual and groups In short they were well known well informed and persons of influence Some Important Issues Emotions Few human relationships are devoid of emotions even if some models of leadership such as the autocratic do appear to repress or suppress them Sivanathan and Fekken reported that leaders who reported higher levels of emotional intelligence were perceived by their followers as higher in transformational leadership and more effective as leaders Distributed leadership Leadership may be exercised in almost any role in any organization to the individual and communal benefit Here we might consider leadership to be distributed Spillane et al across the organization note that if leadership is distributed then follower ship is also distributed with top people being willing followers of others Servant leadership genuine servant leader works with his followers in building a community of participation and solidarity In addition Stone et al argued that transformational leaders were more focused upon the organization and its goals whereas the servant leader was more focused upon the followers and their contribution to the organizational purpose The notion of servant leadership is not necessarily self-sacrificing but is in service to a goal greater than the individual Critical reflections The charismatic can exert a kind of seductive power and the fact that the seduced are more than willing does not absolve either of them from their ethical difficulties Cultural context We also wish to be careful about the cultural context of leading and following Ant followers In the Hawthorn studies Less well known was the fact that the original research design included a group of male workers When the researchers began to change the lighting the men simply refused to cooperate and they removed themselves from the experiment Antileaders Learning Summary Followers are every bit as important as leaders for it is they who will influence and implement leaders decisions Followers act best when they tell the truth speak of their issues and concerns and share their advice with the leader The match of preferred leadership style of followers and the actual style of leaders may if well matched enable achievements or if ill matched disable achievements Followers can be viewed in five categories exemplary survivors yes people sheep and alienated Leaders need to be aware of the followers states in order to work with them Followers especially exemplary followers can be enlisted in work performance and goal achievement that can be of high excellence Leaders and followers are not only in work or technical relationships they are also in social relationships Situational context can determine performance in highly unfavorable conditions relation oriented followers perform worse than task oriented followers do In moderate or favorable conditions the reverse is true Mischa Popper argued for the existence of three types of leader follower relations regressive symbolic and developmental Regressive relations are not constructive but provide a sense of safety and meet dependency needs By identifying with a symbolic leader followers can seek to enhance their sense of self-worth By working with a developmental leader followers may achieve exceptional organizational performance and growth in capability Followers are the means whereby distributed leadership exists Leader and follower relations may be embedded in service to a greater goal demonstrating servant leadership Alienated followers can mobilize antileaders Leadership A Cultural Construction Chapter Introduction Can leaders and managers choose and then implement a corporate culture Second can such a culture survive or persist in a national or regional culture if it is not aligned with it Third can transnational or multinational organizations choose a culture from the very many in which their staff live and if they can how should they do it Culture Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief art morals law custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society The Oxford English Dictionary defines culture as a particular form stage or type of intellectual development or civilization in a society and also as a society or group characterized by its distinctive customs achievements products outlooks etc one culture does affect another This happens by processes of diffusion across boundaries through trade travel alliances proselytisation and so on Also cultures diffuse through conquest and colonization Orgs can have a micro culture inside tier culture Culture of Modern Organizations Cultures sometimes referred to as social structures shape and condition how organizations are constructed and emerge Our view is that organizations are manifestations of the sociocultural system in which they are embedded This view is similar to the stance of Scott where he argues that organizations are the places where the social institutions of values beliefs and modes of order can be observed and be seen to change Hofstede selected four traits and argued hat sets of traits could be found in different configurations Hofstede s theory is justly famous for its cross-cultural focus its simplicity and its boldness The four traits he focused upon were power distance the degree to which organizations were hierarchic uncertainty avoidance the degree to which individuals preferred to avoid uncertainty collectivism the degree to which individuals subordinated individual preferences to the collective will masculinity the degree to which male characteristics were preferred over feminine characteristics Leadership and Culture Robert House has coordinated a major research project on cross-cultural leadership GLOBE Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Project Power distance in society has an impact on different aspects of leadership It seems that an autocratic style of leadership is positively related to high power distance In countries with low power distance people prefer egalitarian leadership In high power distance countries people prefer leaders who are less participative and more authoritarian and directive And these leaders are perceived to be more effective in each context Uncertainty avoidance In high uncertainty avoidance countries leadership is by planning In low uncertainty avoidance countries flexibility and innovativeness are preferred Collectivism and individualism Collectivism was found to be related to affective aspects of motivation to lead Chan and Drasgow and related to preference for transformational leadership Jung and Avolio individualists preferred a transactional leader Dickson et al note that the terms individualism and collectivism have been regarded as too simple They introduced two concepts on collectivism vertical and horizontal The vertical dimension was associated with power distance being high and horizontal collectivism was associated with power distance being low Masculinity and femininity Hofstede reconsidered these dimensions The GLOBE project measured these aspects in a new way First they considered gender egalitarianism which when high endorses charismatic and participative leadership Second was assertiveness which is associated with effective leadership in countries such as the USA but not so in Korea or in other Asian countries The other new constructs introduced were performance orientation and humane orientation In case you think that individuals can be free of culture you might remember that culture is stronger than life and stronger than death for it influences how we live every aspect of our lives in it s taken for grantedness House et al suggested that there might be three propositions Leaders behavior is congruent with the culture in which they are embedded Leader behaviors that are slightly different from the culture might lead to innovation and change Leader behaviors are almost universal Leader behaviors that reflected integrity charisma inspirational and visionary attributes were found to be aspects of outstanding leadership Those that reflected irritability noncooperativeness egocentricity a loner ruthlessness and autocracy were associated with ineffective leaders Some Caveats In the studies respondents were invited to respond in relation to ideal leaders and not the real ones they encountered In addition to studies such as the GLOBE project there have been a large number of comparative studies that compare culture and leadership in pairs of countries or among small groups of countries These have produced three themes First many scholars view leadership with somewhat universalizing constructs Second there is a local valuation of these constructs Third human beings as leaders in different cultures behave in very similar ways Back to Organizations Goffee and Jones examined organizational culture along the two human dimensions of sociability the degree of friendliness between the workforce and solidarity the degree to which the workforce clearly understand and share goals This produces a matrix of four types of organizational culture see Figure Etzioni argued that there were three ideal types of organization normative working upon and about values close to the communal instrumental working at jobs in exchange for money similar to mercenary and coercive working at what is commanded like a prison Most of our organizations are mixes of the normative and the instrumental with some occasional lapse into coercion What Can Leaders Do About Culture Schein wrote of five mechanisms in use by senior managers to embed and transmit culture chose issues to attend to to be controlled and measured reacted to critical incidents and crises deliberately rolemodelled taught set criteria for allocation of rewards set criteria for recruitment promotion retirement and excommunication Schein considered that the first of these was the best method for managers to communicate what mattered most he also included the structures information and control systems goal and mission statements together with the stories myths and legends that are told by the members and encapsulated into histories Morgan in his images of organization provided a set of metaphors that could be taken to describe an organization Among them were the machine bureaucracy the organism the network or maze the psychic prison and the processes of flux and transformation psychic prison represents an organizational culture where anxiety has become so high that the defenses of repression have been mobilized to deal with it imprisoning the members in their unhappy condition Leadership In Private Public And Voluntary Organizations Private - subject to private interests and private objectives and goals e g achieving the maximum value for the owners subject to all the environmental and market constraints leader role here is essentially instrumental a kind of task master Leadership is resource dependent on money opportunities and capability Leaders face the danger of confusing short-term medium term and long-term goals and the behaviors that sustain them Public Have multiple goals in conflict Must be responsive to private interests and public concerns Because they are public they are open to more demands for transparency accountability and control Voluntary Three types Values centered i e religious Leaders symbolize the basic values that they must not betray Service Orgs i e red cross Leaders are concerned with needs of actual and potential clients and the quality and range of given service delivery Also face the complexity of leading a mix of professional staff employed staff and volunteers Campaigning Orgs Set out to change societies and laws political parties issue groups Leaders must be able to present the issues to the world and be articulate and probably charismatic You should note that national cultures and organizational cultures are not static for though they are persisting they are also changing in small ways all the time Learning Summary Culture is a very complex idea and has many definitions that include values language beliefs customs etc National culture and organizational culture are not necessarily the same The idea of an organizational culture complex is a useful tool the traits are ways of doing things attitudes behaviors and beliefs exhibited in an organization In the field of leadership studies there are gurus who act as symbolic leaders for managers National culture and organizational culture were defined by Hofstede along four dimensions power distance uncertainty avoidance seeking collectivism individualism and masculinity femininity Hofstede found clusters of countries with similar scoring on the scales The Globe studies found clusters of cultures there were five European clusters together with a cluster of Confucian Asia Latin America Middle East Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa Leader behavior was found to be congruent with culture in which it was embedded However there were found to be some universal aspects of a outstanding leadership integrity charisma inspirational and visionary attributes and of b ineffective leadership irritability egocentricity ruthlessness autocracy being a loner The fit of leader organization and culture is very complex and has yet to be very well understood Leaders cannot do much about national culture or regional culture However leaders can affect the cultural complex and thereby enhance performance The key difference between voluntary public and private organizations centers upon the degree to which leaders may define goals for participants In voluntary organizations people join because of values in public organizations values are plural while private organizations can have narrower values and goals The freedom of leaders to focus values differs in each kind of organization Gender and Leadership Chapter There are three arguments for changing towards including women in leadership Organizations are the poorer for not having all that female talent and capability A subversion of this is that the trend to flatter organizations and more networking means that organizations should make use of women s skills of relationship to lead effectively Argument is a moral or ethical argument from concepts of justice and equality This arguments asserts that women are equal to men in moral worth and hence should have the opportunities to work and lead in their ways and men should adjust to them Argument is that there are no essential differences between men and women in traits and behaviors but there are important differences within any group of human beings Lorenzen argues that a woman in a leader position cannot surrender her femaleness Lorenzen follows a traditional image of woman as being skilled in relationships and human development but adds the important ingredient of being able to exercise authority Stanford et al asked women leaders to describe their leadership approach they said they were employee-involved management style participating in decision-making working within teams preferred sense of power was of reward and personal power bases including expertise and not position power emphasized the importance of the high quality of interpersonal relationships with employees had a long-range view of the organization and its work and encouraged employees to share it were also effective communicators in the workplace Is Women s Leadership Different from Men s Leadership Appelbaum and his colleagues asked three questions Are women s leadership styles truly different from men s YES Are these styles less likely to be effective NO Is the determination of women s effectiveness as leaders fact based or a perception that has become a reality NOT FACT BASED its socialization Appelbaum considered four approaches biology and sex gender role causal factors and attitudinal drivers Androgynous behaviors are a mix of male and female It was observed that male or androgynous behaviors were more likely to be identified by people as preferred leaders than female leaders Organizational Environment women may have been socialized within their broader cultural context into believing that they are less fit to lead than men Hence their attitude towards leadership is lower than that of men a kind of lower class This second-level status damages women s self-confidence when self-confidence is a good predictor of leadership Organizational Patterns shifting patterns of organization from hierarchic to more flexible and embedded firms operating in negotiated networks has led to the suggestion that the stereotypical female capabilities interpersonal skills communication empathy collaboration conflict handling and negotiation might be of more use than the male competitive aggressive strategic planning and winning and lead to higher effectiveness How Do Women Cope With Male Organizations One strategy for women is to become like the men but this leads to more discrimination and stress Eagley and Johnson found that women were more attuned to personal relations and democratic style men to task achievement and autocracy These differences were supported by Carless where it was observed that women were more likely to be viewed as transformational participative nurturing praising inclusive and considerate Men were seen as directive task oriented and controlling Power if men are more autocratic and directive than women it may be argued that femaleness is the likeliest true leader whereas maleness is a wielder of power In their study Stoebert et al found that women scored higher than men on consideration but lower than men on reward and expert power Emotional intelligence - Mandell and Pherwani who found that emotional intelligence was a strong predictor of the use of transformational leadership style gave further quite surprising evidence of the relevance of traits to behavior It could be concluded that men and women could choose to have emotional intelligence but it is often asserted that women are more likely to possess high levels of emotional intelligence than men Demographics Kakabadse and his colleagues concluded that men and women just as effective Women face hurdles in getting to the senior levels but once in senior jobs their behavior was not different from that of men But we might offer a further caveat to these studies which is that both were conducted in the public services Such organizations typically have overt antidiscrimination policies but also may attract men with lower masculinity characteristics and a more androgynous gender orientation If so the evidenced differences between men and women would be unlikely to be present The small proportion of women might also have skewed the statistics Do Women Make Better Leaders Than Men Pounder and Coleman answered this question as depending upon a National culture Leadership style may reflect the national culture within which it is enacted b Socialization society An individual s particular style of leadership may originate in a variety of societal experiences including stereotyping that have shaped that individual s values and characteristics c Socialization workplace An individual s leadership style may shaped by the workplace experiences peculiar to that individual d Nature of the organization It may be that differences in organizational type give rise to differences in leadership style e Organizational demographics Factors such as tenure in the organization and in the job experience of senior management responsibilities and the composition of the managerial peer group may all contribute to the enactment of a particular style of leadership Emotional intelligence - we are in need of understanding again that judgment is more important than decision and that good judgment comes from that strange human quality wisdom Wisdom in Leadership wisdom is not merely that of the wise person who knows herself not just the quality of knowing everything deep inside your soul about the human foulness in yourself It is that but it is also knowledge of the grace in yourself as well as the muddle and confusion but more it is for leaders the quality of systemic wisdom that looks across the social systems and finds a route to understanding challenge of systemic wisdom to think about the whole system Learning Summary The increase in the number of women in leadership positions has been a relatively recent phenomenon However the position and rate of change of position of women varies widely across the countries of the world The voices of women differ from those of men but also differ between women from different countries and backgrounds There is a difference to be observed between sex and gender roles sex roles are biological and gender roles are socially and culturally determined The masculine culture of organization creates a double bind for women behave like men in order to succeed and if you do you surrender the female gender role There is evidence that country culture shapes how leadership is understood masculine cultures stressing such items as individualism independence and defined and separate sex roles Feminine cultures had definitions including involvement community and lower aggressive behaviors Nevertheless note that the culture descriptors are gender related Men superiors have a different view of glass ceiling than female subordinates If male superiors are not aware of the differences in leader behavior of women then they will define leaders in masculine terms and hence exclude women There is evidence that women s leadership styles are different from those of men Women are likely to have higher emotional intelligence and a greater likelihood of using transformational leadership styles However this evidence is contested in a number of studies There is evidence that societal and organizational demographics are strong determinants of both men or women leader behaviors and that men and women leader behaviors are very similar It is argued that because of culture and hence expectations men will be viewed in many masculine countries and organizations as better leaders than women will However it is not universally true The rapidly emerging change in the complexity and instability of markets and organizations driven by ICT and globalization makes new and more difficult demands on leaders It is argued that neither men nor women have a monopoly of wisdom a leader quality needed in the new circumstances Perhaps the observed androgynous leadership is better equipped to flourish in this new world Developing Ethical Behaviour in our leaders Chapter Ethics study of moral philosophy helps us dealt with abstracts concepts such as good truth justice love virtue compassion and ultimately what is right or wrong Socrates felt that - We must be bound by morality what is wrong or right and must not be influenced by our emotions or what might happen to us Morality is a social construct existed before individual or organizations cam into existence Ethically accepted practices vary across cultures Difference between ethical and legal behavior ethics and law are both moral conventions Ethics are not legislated and are not punishable as lawbreakers We can not assume that law abiding is also being ethical Many civil protests have been because laws were seen as unethical Most ethical dilemmas are because of two competing ethical concerns and the judgment required to sacrifice one for the greater good of the other Jackson stated that there are difficulties in ethical business behavior Difficulties in identification or what is your duty and Difficulties in compliance doing your duty once you know what it is So even once we have undergone analysis to make ethical decision we still must face the challenge of putting that decision in practice Guidelines by nature are based on past experience and not particularly adaptable to new situations Code of ethics in business some companies have created them but there is no evidence of that they actually practice it Businesses are ethical only when the business leaders themselves act ethically Ethical behavior should be of concern only in as much as they affect profits It can be argued that acting otherwise could be seen as neglecting the fiduciary responsibilities of management The Business ethics Gap Table Ethical stance in business The ethical position of the business Example Negative ethical gap The organization positions itself so that it s ethical practices lag behind societal expectations and actively resists pressures particularly as they effect profitability The Ford Pinto Ford Motor Company chose to aggressively contest all lawsuits and legislation brought against it for culpability in the design and manufacture of gas tanks in its Pinto automobiles which were prone to catch fire in rear-end collisions Ethical congruence The organization identifies changing societal expectations and positions its products or service to meet those Expectations The retail food industry As concerns grew about our food supply preferring organic avoiding genetically modified being unhealthy in other ways food producers developed product lines in response to those concerns Such products often command a premium price Positive ethical gap The organization positions itself so that its ethical practices exceed societal expectations actively setting a standard and perhaps providing leadership in The development of ethical practices Volvo and safe cars Volvo adopted safety as its ethos in its products as well as all of its processes It began making its cars safer long before safety standards were legislated by governing bodies For example seat belts were introduced in but were not required in Sweden until A road map to ethical decisions Table Three alternative roadmaps for ethical decisions Type of unethical roadmap Advantages Disadvantages Deontological Contractarian Ethical decisions are made against relatively unchanging principles that set out our rights roles and duties Contractarian theory would dismiss any consequential damage of our ethical choices as long as the choice was consistent with agreed principles Unfortunately such consequences may well be morally unacceptable It is unrealistic to attempt to justify standing by our principles regardless of the outcomes Such principles can be well understood and interpreted and what is right can be clearly defined Outcomes are not considered adherence to principles could lead to a lesser good Utilitarian outcome morality Ethical decisions are made based on outcomes the path which will likely lead to the greatest good Flexibility in ethical Decision-making will lead to the best outcome The processes are not considered so even unethical or unlawful means of achieving the best outcome can be employed Moral judgment Ethical decisions are made based on internal moral virtues that support a life worth living These two dimensions lead to the identification of character traits or virtues The social dimension is based on the fact that we need to live in a community the virtues of the Social dimension promote peace in the community By contrast the aspirational virtues promote inner peace They are what help differentiate humans from other community dwelling creatures for they give us the sense that we have space to accomplish something to find a purpose for our lives to develop a sense of personal fulfillment The virtues associated with the aspirational dimension include prudence or sensibility ambition enthusiasm modesty and self knowledge Ethical decisions rest on internal strength of character traits and morality and balance emotion and judgment Methods to assess and develop internal virtues are not well established and decisions must still be made within an external context Leadership and ethical behavior It is very clear that the actions of organizational leaders impact on the resultant behaviors of their employees It is the leaders who have the ability to establish and communicate organizational values and then ensure compliance through the imposition of rewards and sanctions When a leader is perceived to have a high level of integrity the ethical intentions of his or her subordinates whether they have strong moral beliefs or not will be higher Advising and judging are an important part of morality and implicit in the role of organizational leadership By its very nature ethical behavior is difficult to define as most dilemmas are the result of two competing ethical considerations both outcomes are preferable but not possible Nevertheless leaders actions or lack of action will profoundly affect the ethical stance of their organizations And the ethical stance chosen will certainly affect shareholders and stakeholders alike There appears to be little doubt that good ethics is good business Learning Summary Ethics is a branch of moral philosophy that can assist us as organizational leaders in making decisions about what is right and what is wrong Behavior considered unethical may not however necessarily be unlawful Ethical behavior has two components finding what is right and then doing what is right Mechanisms such as ethical codes of conduct and whistleblower policies do not appear to ensure ethical behavior the actions of top executives however are effective There is some support for the view that good ethics is a good long-term business strategy Organizations may adopt an ethical stance that lags societal expectations is congruent with expectations or actually leads and perhaps influences expectations A company with a strong ethical culture will probably find it to be an asset in coping with crises Ethical decisions may be defined through three roadmaps in congruence with established principles deontological in view of the outcome that is likely to be best utilitarian or through the character of the individual moral judgment Advising and judging are ethical requirements of the leadership function Asking basic questions about whether an action harms people or the environment affronts human dignity provides personal gain or needs to be hidden will help us understand whether or not the action is ethical Leading individuals and teams Chapter Leadership behaviors are strongly influenced by the individual leader s innate characteristics experience and values And leadership success is every bit as dependent upon the follower as upon the leader Table Three differing leadership requirements Individual leadership Team leadership Organizational leadership One task One person One situation Immediate timeframe Leader focuses on follower task accomplishment Psychological in nature Does not mean micromanagement Multiple tasks Team or group Several simultaneous situations Intermediate timeframe Leader focuses on success of the team Is social psychological and involves group dynamics purpose is helping teams succeed Mission purpose vision strategy Organization or community Many simultaneous situations Long timeframe Leader focuses on survival and success of the organization Political historical sociological in nature Self leadership self leadership is having the self-knowledge and self-discipline to select appropriate leadership behaviors even in the midst of pressures crises and internal inclinations to do otherwise transcendent leadership Transcendent leadership involves behaviors skills and perspectives that are appropriate across all situations Transcendent leadership applies whether a person is leading another individual on a single task a team or a whole corporation on a complex strategic design or implementation Integrity is the key transcendent leadership quality - Tell the truth - do what you say you re going to do They are positioned in the figure to illustrate that they underpin the continuum of leadership and are fundamental to all three areas of leadership behavior Leading the individual Importance of two independent factors in one-to-one and small group settings consideration for the person and task initiative Consideration is sometimes called the people factor and task initiative is sometimes called the work factor Each of these two factors is a group of related behaviors and concerns Behaviors high on the people factor include support encouragement showing warmth cooperation and caring Behaviors high on the work factor include giving directions following up to be sure the work is completed planning the work for someone and assigning work roles and responsibilities However we also recall that a leader does not have to choose one factor or the other for the two factors is totally independent A Leaders Behavior and concerns May be high on one factor and low on the other high on both factors or low on both factors Situational Leadership SL model better fits our experience in helping leaders to learn specific behaviors they can select to deal with employees SL model recasts the two people task factors as support and direction Support is the people factor defined as encouraging people praising their good work thanking them helping them to solve their own problems and so on Its purpose is to build confidence self-esteem and commitment Direction in line with the task orientation of the two factor model includes telling and showing people how to do a task being precise about outcomes deadlines procedures and standards evaluating how followers do it and monitoring their work The purpose of the direction factor is to ensure compliance with appropriate methods and standards of working and to build job related skills In order to know what leadership actions to take the leader must first diagnose the follower s level of development for the particular task under consideration Choosing the most effective leadership behaviors In situation leadership we match the leadership style to the development of the follower on a specific task To make this diagnosis we need to consider the following How competent is he on this task How committed is he to this task How confident is he about this task D enthusiastic unenthusiastic beginner S Directing Follower usually approaches the new task as an enthusiastic beginner unable to do the task but motivated to learn he or she will need a considerable amount of control but little support beyond common courtesy would be clear about standards targets and procedures while closely monitoring results and providing additional input S Directing Leader has more control Support not required beyond common courtesy Behaviors Control with heart Give direction Tell follower what to do when to do it and how to do it Monitor follower s work closely and constantly Set targets and deadlines Make decisions Identify problems control problem-solving and identify solutions Define roles D disillusioned learner S Coaching The employee may have begun the task with enthusiasm but then found that success has not yet been achieved The follower may find that problems that were initially resolved reoccur or continued mistakes may have impacted on self-confidence Requires equal measures of support and control S may well be the most time-consuming style as the leader will now also spend time reassuring and praising efforts as well as successes S Coaching Leader has more control Support beyond common courtesy required Behaviors Ask encourage control Make decisions and set plans with input from follower Explain decisions to follower Solicit follower s ideas Support and praise follower s initiative Evaluate follower s work Set goals and deadlines Direct follower s work Identify problems D Regular contributor S Supporting Normally able to complete the tasks adequately but require support from time to time the follower still needs reassurance and support but very little direction Many employees may not move beyond developmental level even though they can consistently demonstrate the ability to do the task they continue to require some reassurance or support from their leader The S Supportive style is required in this case where the purpose is to provide the follower with reassurance that work is up to standard and that the person is appreciated and valued S Supporting Follower has more control Support beyond common courtesy required Behaviors Ask encourage allow Join follower in problem-solving when requested Provide ideas and or resources when requested Listen to follower s ideas Assure follower of his or her competence Facilitate follower s problem-solving Ask follower to define how task should be done Help follower evaluate his or her own work D Peak Performer S Delegating individuals achieve peak performance D they develop high mastery coupled with high commitment and confidence in doing the task Individuals often labeled star performers are a most valuable part of any work team Our only requirement as a leader is to delegate the task to the individual and then leave that individual to get on with the work S Delegating Follower has more control Support not required beyond common courtesy Behaviors Delegate with presence Allow follower to set plans solve problems make decisions Have follower evaluate his or her own work Allow follower to take credit Define problems with follower Set goals together Monitor follower s performance periodically or infrequently at most Be available to follower When leadership style do not match developmental levels Over leading use of lower style than needed and under leading use of a higher style than needed Some situations leader may find it advantageous to over lead or under lead Over leading Under leading Advantages may occur in times of crisis or urgency Thrown in at the deep end confronted a crisis or were involved in a startup operation with little or no guidance All of these situations were times when the managers felt they were under led and had to quickly undergo a very steep learning curve Disadvantages entail giving more control or support than is required by the individual the follower may well perceive such behavior as showing the leader s lack of trust in his or her competence as being a control freak limiting the individual s growth and development or even as being condescending The follower given too little control or support may well become discouraged lose heart and Ultimately fail in task responsibilities LEADING A TEAM Team Stage Member Behavior Action steps to move ahead Leaders actions Forming Group members show courtesy towards each other and getting to know you behaviors Individuals share information and form initial stereotypes of each other Individuals unclear on group goals pursue why we are here discussions No conflict but little productivity Little trust or commitment to the group Group norms and individual roles not established Set a mission Set goals Establish roles Recognize need to move out of forming stage Identify the team its tools and resources Leader must be directive Figure ways to build trust Define a reward structure Take risks assert power Bring group together periodically to work on common tasks Decide once and for all to be on the team Provide structure Hold regular meetings Clarify tasks and roles Encourage participation by all domination by none Facilitate learning about one another s areas of expertise and preferred working modes Share all relevant information Encourage members to ask questions of you and one another Storming Individuals push for influence Cliques form splinter reform Goals are set changed questioned reset Agendas are hidden Some individuals unusually aggressive or passive Conflict even personal attacks Problem-solving ineffective Group accomplishments quite limited Team leader should actively support and reinforce team behavior facilitate the group for wins create positive environment Leader must ask for and expect results Recognize publicize team wins Agree on individuals role and responsibilities Buy into objectives and activities Listen to each other Set and take team time together Everyone works actively to set a supportive environment Have the vision We can succeed Request and accept feedback Build trust by honoring commitments Use joint problem-solving have members explain why idea is useful and how to improve it Establish norm supporting expression of different viewpoints Discuss group s decision-making process and share decision-making responsibility Encourage members to state how they feel as well as what they think about an issue Give members the resources needed to do their jobs to the extent possible when not explain Norming Roles hierarchy and norms established Start to view the group as a team team identity established Steady cliques have formed members identify with the team Creativity emerges Team achievement is evident Limited disagreement groupthink a danger members don t confront to avoid rocking the boat New member entry is difficult Keep up the team wins Maintain traditions Praise and flatter each other Self-evaluate without Recognize and reinforce synergy team behavior Share leadership role in team based on who does what the best Share reward for successes Communicate all the time Share responsibility Delegate freely within Keep raising the bar new higher goals - Be selective of new team members select and train to maintain the team spirit Talk openly about your own issues and concerns Have group members manage agenda fuss items particularly those in which you have a high stake Give and request both positive and constructive negative feedback in the group Assign challenging problems for consensus decisions Delegate as much as the members are capable of handling team help them as necessary Performing Team members very motivated morale and team pride are very high High trust intense loyalty self-sacrifice for team good No cliques Individuals request feedback no surprises Confrontation seen as positive All members accepted and valued Superb goal attainment New member entry may cause regression to a previous stage Maintain efforts that brought the team to this stage Jointly set challenging goals Look for new opportunities to increase the group s scope Question assumptions and traditional way of behaving Develop mechanism for ongoing self-assessment by the group Appreciate each member s contribution Develop members to their fullest potential through task assignments and feedback Learning Summary Leading the individual is primarily psychological in nature focusing on one task or situation at a time Team leadership involves many tasks at the same time and considers social psychological and team dynamics Organizational leadership is big picture focused uses influencing skills and considers political historical and sociological factors In all leadership behaviors there are two additional underpinning leadership realms leadership of self managing personal energy and courage and transcendent leadership the key component being integrity Leading an individual involves some level of both task focus and relationship focus Situational leadership provides a model for selecting an effective leadership approach based on the development level of the individual Individual development levels may be diagnosed by understanding the follower s competence commitment and confidence for one particular task As the development level is identified the leader will then choose to use a corresponding leadership style directing coaching supporting or delegating depending on the follower s needs Under leading or over leading an individual can have both positive and negative effects Teams go through predictable development stages forming storming norming performing The leader as in situational leadership can diagnose the team s development level and then choose leadership actions that will facilitate the team s growth to the next stage There is considerable similarity between the team development stages and the individual development levels of situational leadership Although the skills needed to lead individuals and teams are invaluable additional skills will be needed in order to influence the wider organization Leadership across the organization Chapter Although we are not in direct control of others behavior we must somehow find how to influence their behavior To do so it is helpful first to understand the ways in which power and influence may be projected within organizations Having power over others in an organizational setting may be defined as the ability to have others modify their behavior in a desired manner without in turn having to modify your own behavior Sources of social Power- Type of Power example Reward providing something of value to an individual for responding in a desirable manner Carrot part of the motivation An incentive is a contract for performance if you achieve this the organization will give you that It is in contrast to a reward which may or may not be expected and is given after the fact Pay Incentive schemes Bonuses Verbal praise Gifts Symbolic rewards such as plaques awards etc Coercive second part of the carrot or stick equation the threat or application of punishment if the individual does not respond in a desired manner often seen as the opposite of reward power Threats of withdrawal of reward Verbal destructive criticism bullying etc The disciplinary process Ignoring exclusion from the group Assignment of unpleasant work Discharge from employment Legitimate the official authority conferred on someone as a part of their position of responsibility within the organization Most effective type of power Appointment to a management position Active support from a senior person Legally required such as internal auditor or safety officer Membership of an external legal control entity referent specific to the individual because they are well liked or admired charisma and or star status are intrinsic to referent power Someone achieving an heroic feat Public entertainment star A star within a profession or field of Endeavour A highly charismatic individual expert based on specialized knowledge needed by but otherwise unavailable to others Doctor Research scientist Building contractor Engineering specialist Pilot Specialty consultant Power vs Influence Leadership can be exhibited and quite effectively by individuals who are lacking in virtually all five sources of power This type of leader tends to serve as a catalyst and a facilitator somehow making things happen but without needing to have a managerial job title being charismatic or being an expert Rather they tend to influence others by projecting a sense of authority rather than by bringing a source of power to bear Leaders such as these who act with authority are likely to use a coaching and consultative approach providing equal measure of service and leadership convincing cajoling praising communicating teaching coaching supporting organizing and following up They gain the support of others We think this skill set is more akin to influencing than to exerting power In essence such Leadership success will depend very heavily on influencing skills because as we usually cannot command others we must influence them to want to support our efforts Kouzes and Possner were able to formulate five key practices of exemplary leaders from the tremendous amount of data they generated Model the way Set the example Walk your talk Be a role model It reinforces our view that the key transcendent leadership quality is integrity Integrity is built by keeping our word being straight with people doing things the right way and so on leader s whole approach to business and people is values driven Inspire a shared vision Successful leaders not only spend time creating a vision but they do so in conjunction with their followers developing a vision that appeals to the aspirations of the follower successful leaders also place a good deal of emotion into promoting the vision It is precisely the process of being emotional that gives the vision depth and meaning So the leader not only possesses a wholehearted belief in the vision but he or she also preaches the vision at every opportunity Challenge the process that successful leaders consistently challenged the status quo and nurtured the same characteristic in others They were experimenters and risk takers taking time to question and explore alternatives continually searching for ways to change and improve things Enable others to act Empowerment is the key to this leadership practice delegation is a part of this process Empowerment requires that our followers need to feel they have the opportunity and power to act Leaders can instill a sense of power and control by allowing followers to make decisions Indecisiveness is not tolerated while decisiveness is rewarded The best performing teams are those in which the leadership function is shared Encourage the heart Perhaps the most underutilized resource in today s organizations is the pride And enthusiasm of their employees Conversely goals and standards are clearly set at a high but achievable standard And when those goals are met and exceeded they are recognized and celebrated personally and publicly Followers of course want to achieve and feel that their talents are being well used but they also want to know that their efforts are appreciated by their employing organization Leadership practice Supporting behavior Challenge the process Seeking opportunities that challenge and test our skills and abilities Keeping up to date on the most recent developments in the organization Keeping up to date on the most recent developments in our field Challenging the methods processes and procedures we use at work Looking for innovative ways to improve what we do Asking what can we learn when things do not work out as expected Experimenting with new approaches even if we might fail Inspire a shared vision Discussing the kind of future we could create together Appealing to one another to buy in to one another s dream of the future Communicating positive and hopeful outlooks for the organization Showing one another how their individual future interests can be served by enlisting in a common vision Looking ahead and forecasting the future Sharing excitement and enthusiasm about future possibilities Enable others to act Involving others in planning Treating one another with respect and dignity Giving people the discretion to make their own decisions and the training to make them correctly Developing cooperative relationships with one another Creating an atmosphere of mutual trust Generating a sense of ownership among all of us over the work we do Model the way Being clear about our philosophies of leadership management and work Breaking projects down into manageable chunks Ensuring people adhere to the values and ideals to which we have agreed Discussing our beliefs about how to run the organization Consistently practicing the values ideals and philosophies we espouse Setting clear goals plans and milestones for our work Encourage the heart Celebrating our accomplishments when we reach milestones or achieve goals Recognizing people for their contributions to our success Praising one another for a job well done Giving one another appreciation and support for their contributions Finding ways to celebrate our successes Telling the rest of the organization about the good work we do Learning Summary Leaders often need to provide leadership across their organization influencing individuals and teams from other areas areas over which they have no formal authority Organizational leadership is substantially different from individual and team leadership in that it may be required to consider organizational purpose politics and history within the context of the wider community while involving any simultaneous situations within a longer timeframe A model of social power includes five sources of such power reward power coercive power legitimate power referent power and expert power Reward legitimate and expert power may be viewed as positive and desirable methods to support leadership aims Coercive power is not likely to be as effective because of its unpredictable outcomes while few individuals will find referent power to be a long-term source of support within an organization Influencing skills are an additional source of leadership success in that they can be employed with little social power but also in conjunction with social power Kouzes and Posner identified five leadership practices of successful leaders that any leader may successfully employ model the way inspire a shared vision challenge the process enable others to act and encourage the heart Organizational leadership and its associated influencing skills will be of increasing importance to leaders in the st century Leadership Development in Fast-Changing world Chapter Many years ago succession planning might as well have been called replacement planning as it was easy to look around the org and find replacement leaders Requirements for leaders of tomorrow their characteristics attitudes and knowledge will be different from the requirements today The search for corporate leadership has been largely unsuccessful The Need for a new approach - Leibman and his colleagues have pointed out that executives must modify their approach to the development of tomorrow s leaders that the most important goal of succession planning must become the development of strong leadership teams He described changes needed in succession planning methods and named the new approach succession management Focusing on leadership function and leadership teams - focus in organizations must shift from a narrow goal of developing individual leaders to that of developing the leadership function and the team of leaders who will lead the organization through significant change This shift must impact on everything from recruitment to succession planning job placement compensation and executive development Viewed this way succession management consists of two distinct but overlapping processes identification and development The purposes are to identify people who can jointly develop into better leaders as a leadership team and then to provide them with opportunities to develop their individual and shared leadership capabilities even further The changing context why new approaches to leadership development are needed We believe there are six key forces all expanded below as well in detail a change in the mode of conduct required of leaders from transactional and transitional to transformational the need to change organizations but in uncertain ways a change from heroic leadership executed almost entirely by the individual to leadership carried out by leadership teams teams that are cohesive that have shared visions and which develop skills to complement each other a change from stable individual jobs to strategic constantly redefined tasks that are often performed by teams a change from simple logical bureaucratic forms of organizations to complex global and organic forms constantly coping with change a change in followers from industrial-era to knowledge-era mindsets From Transactional to transformational As proposed through transformational leadership theory the focus of our leadership actions becomes the follower rather than the leader Need to change in uncertain ways - our world is increasingly characterized by transformation rather than transactions Therefore the organization is constantly changing and in unpredictable ways No job is the same so the requirements for the individuals who fill the jobs are also markedly different A traditional approach to succession planning falls short of our requirements Kur in his organization change work wrote that it is useful to differentiate between two leadership worldviews those in which the leaders both know they must change the organization and have a vision of what it must be changed into and those in which the leaders know they must change the organization but have very little idea about what it must be changed into Leadership development logically or illogically demands that the organization somehow take on the almost impossible task of developing a range of unknown leadership skills that will serve the changing organization well under a variety of yet unknown scenarios From Individual Hero to Team Player emulating the heroic figure is not an appropriate method to develop organizational leaders today such an approach may even be a distraction In the best organizations leadership teams are nurtured over years Thus the development of the leadership function and the leadership team must be the focus of leadership development rather than the development of individual leaders This perspective is related to what is sometimes called Super Leadership Manz and Simms The focus of Super Leadership is twofold First we must systematically identify and develop the talent that each man and woman in the organization possesses Then we must shape the expression of the talent within teams that synergistically pursue organizational aims from stable individual jobs to Continually changing strategic tasks performed by teams - in today s fast changing world few managers can describe their organization s environment as being stable and would not anticipate stability at any time in the future As No future job will be the same as it is today companies are looking at framesworks other than traditional in designing grading schemes and compensation for employees work is now being assigned to teams because of the increasing complexity of technology markets and so on We simply have lost the ability to plan effectively for individuals to fill specific future jobs From simpler to more complex more global enterprise some see move to globalization as creating more organizational complexities other argue that it will be simpler bur connected very carefully with simple work processes It is not just globalization that makes development of future leaders difficult it is also the increasing level of complexity in everything people do in every king of work We also see increasing numbers of organizations that have an organic design whereby teams multidisciplined and fast changing are assigned to a specific problem product or customer The team may then just as quickly melt away as its purpose is accomplished and individuals are assigned to other teams to work on other tasks In short ability to deal with complexity and ambiguity has become a central leadership requirement A change in the nature of followers As information and knowledge moved to a central role in corporate life the role of physical capital in determining competitive advantage declined information is a commodity that can be bought and sold Consequently it too has become insufficient to define competitive advantage collecting knowledge is the easy part We re not constrained by information we are constrained by sensemaking We are not constrained by ideas but by what to do with them people capable of supporting the acquisition and management of information and of inculcating the development of wisdom and sensemaking around that information will be best able to lead organizations And it is equally evident that the followers too are different As knowledgebased workers their expectations are of challenge development a sense of growth and contribution The employer that offers such a place of employment will be able to recruit and maintain such highly skilled employees If not the workers can easily market their skills elsewhere Q Survey Emerging approach to leadership development Industrial era organizations require employees who are specialized in the process Todays organizations find knowledge central to their success Knowledge is difficult to account for and tough to organize People employed due to their knowledge will require a different form of leadership than those employed for industrial era behaviors Increasing work will be done by teams theories Stratified Systems theory SST Associated with Elliot Jaques The idea is that leaders and others take action based not on what is but based on their perception or map of what is the implication of SST is that we must find ways to increase the cognitive capability of those who aspire to lead people can increase their use of the cognitive capability they already have Theory of learning behavior - This theory proposes that organizations themselves must learn Just as the human has the central nervous system to take in and synthesize information the learning process so must organizations develop a framework so that knowledge is gathered retained and made available for later use One principle underlying this framework is that becoming a learning organization requires an intellectual and emotional transformation of the organization s workforce Doubleloop method learning is learning in which employees learn not only to behave differently but also to think value and feel differently Frame work for developing leadership function of organizations most leadership development programs will exhibit the following characteristics in one way or another a culture of leadership development actively driven and supported from the top - process will probably start with the strategic planning process where consideration of leadership development will be included as an enabling strategy and be a part of any SWOT analysis leadership development aims that are woven into and evolve with organizational strategy although the link between strategy and environmental considerations such as customers competition technology and so on is usually strong the link between strategy and leadership development is often quite weak There may be several reasons for this weakness It is conceptually difficult to link longer-term leadership development aims with the immediate challenges posed by the business environment Therefore leadership development is often focused on internal issues such as controlling costs efficiency drives and team performance The development of pools of talent can easily be postponed in favor of more immediate and pressing business priorities In short firefighting is a much more exciting and visible activity than fire prevention Many of the forces described earlier in this module make it particularly difficult to bring a specific focus to the goals of leadership development when using the traditional classroom methods In essence the aim of leadership development is likely to be continually changing M example Seibert et al believe that the guiding principles for linking strategy and executive development are Begin by moving out and up to business strategy The strategic directions of the business should drive the process of executive development Put job experiences before classroom experiences Be opportunistic capitalizing on changes within the business environment Models of leadership development The ladder the most traditional of methods leader makes his or her way up the organizational ladder one carefully defined step at a time The only issue is how quickly the steps can be climbed The circus Imagine a circus with its many highly specialized skills in and above the circus rings This approach is one of increased specialization with little interaction with other specialties but all performing at the same time The jungle Leadership development here is based on the law of the jungle The first goal is survival and the second is to best competitors to gain dominance The most dominant gain promotion The N matrix Under this model moving in any direction up down or sideways develops leaders The goal is that the diversity of experiences will better prepare leaders of today for tomorrow s challenges The academy Based on the more formalized approach found in academia this process takes candidates through a series of rather formalized and lengthy learning processes each resulting in tick marks on the CV He or she with the most ticks is promoted Approaches to identify competencies Benefits Disadvantages Data Based based on superior performance in the company Assumes What has worked previously will continue to work for future leaders Has legitimacy as it is data based Competencies of the past may not be the one needed in the future Value Based Product of a strong culture or the vision of a specific individual founder Quite motivational and tend to build and maintain the culture Effective only if they are the ones that are most important to the org Can sometimes be difficult to define Strategy Based- identifies future requirements Focus on learning new skills Supports org change efforts Difficult to define exactly what competencies will be required in the future Selecting wrong may result in misdirection and wasted effort Learning Based requires leaders to learn quickly and adapt Focus on basic and enduring personal skills May overlook established competencies also important to the business program aims based on competencies thought to be specific to the organization Competency based leadership development systems have the potential to address the problem most organizations begin by identifying far too many competencies a result that makes the process practically unusable for most people Brisco identified four approaches or foundations that organizations use to identify competencies support of leadership development through congruent HR and performance management systems Internal selection management development and reward system should be entwined with leadership development process to support and shape it Most fundamental system required id Organizations performance management system Meaningful development tends to be more in-depth Other common systems are a job posting system advertising jobs that are available throughout the organization a succession planning system whereby senior management reviews current and future leadership needs for the organization as well as the development needed by key individuals to fill those positions in-house leadership development resources which may vary from a relatively formal corporate university to a less formal variety of workshops and training opportunities addressing a variety of topics in addition to leadership and management systematic executive involvement whereby the executive team itself provides learning opportunities for junior leaders through activities such as mentoring leading training programs supporting secondments facilitating the succession planning process and much more a broad interface with external resources Traditional external source is university business school Evolving themes of leadership development leadership will be more challenging and changing in the future Orgs that meet the challenge will be most likely to succeed Key to meeting the challenge is identification and development of leadership as we strive to develop leadership effectiveness for our organizations the following themes emerge The majority of an organization s leadership capability will need to be developed internally it will not be feasible to acquire it from outside the organization The process will need to begin with developing the leadership function in total the system by which leaders and leadership teams are developed Key skills will be the leadership of change and in an uncertain world Transformational leadership approaches that develop enable and empower followers will be key The ability to make the most of teams and networks will be of considerable importance Leaders will also increasingly need to learn to deal with complexity Learning Summary Programs designed to develop leaders have been available for at least years and yet most organizations report that the need to develop leaders remains an exceptionally high priority The reason why the need for leaders remains such a priority appears to be that the emphasis needs to be on developing leadership teams and the total leadership function not just individual leaders There are strong contextual forces that are shaping the ways in which leaders are being required to lead a move to a transformational style of leadership a need to lead change but in uncertain directions a move to teamworking and leadership teams a need to cope with continually changing jobs and tasks the increased complexity of global enterprises a change in the expectations of followers Stratified systems theory supports the view that leaders must learn to deal with an increasingly complex business environment with many shades of grey Organizational learning theory supports the view that leaders must engage the whole person if they are to gain commitment rather than compliance from followers Leadership teams are now required of organizations rather than the heroic leader of times past A framework to develop the leadership function must be enmeshed with the fabric of the organization its leaders its strategy and its HR and performance management systems Leadership Development Tools and Practices Chapter How can leadership be learned Leadership success is a mixture of innate ability combined with experience Our would be leader must have the intellectual ability to be able to understand the leadership task as well as some mixture of personal characteristics in order to interact effectively with followers Given those basic characteristics as with any skill our emerging leader would also need to have the desire to lead the opportunity to develop those skills and then the opportunity to be in a situation to apply those leadership behaviors Behavioral Choice Model Kurt points out that any leader has a wide repertoire of behaviors from which to choose as he she attempts to influence potential followers to align their activities with the purposes of the leader When the leader chooses appropriate behaviors followers choose to follow Choosing effective behaviors is a process learned through experience and feedback Behaviors that result in followers choosing to follow are retained and honed Behaviors that are ineffective or even counterproductive are discarded From this model we can conclude that a motivated individual with basic abilities can learn to lead Leader s success is also influenced by the context I e success in one field does not mean success in another How do we learn - Learning theory Key points of leadership development Behaviorism stimulus response Concerned with observable inputs and outputs in learning The theory focuses on the impact of external events rewards on the learning of behaviors Rewarding behaviors reinforces those behaviors thus learning occurs Standards and goals should be clear to the learner Feedback clear and immediate is key and is a type of reinforcement For complex tasks training should be structured in small incremental steps leading towards mastery of the task Sporadic rewards are more reinforcing than consistent rewards Ignoring behaviors will cause them to be extinguished in time Punishment should be avoided as its impact on learning is unpredictable A major step in learning theory operant conditioning was formulated by Skinner Cognitivism mental processes The theory examines the internal mental processes involved in learning Herbert A Simon s theory People have unique mental structures and will therefore learn in different ways Learning will occur through repletion and variety Concepts should be structured to present the same skill or concept in a variety of ways reading discussion practice observing and so on The development of language is a key support for increasing cognitive complexity and therefore leadership effectiveness Addressing subtleties and areas of grey are important for complex skills such as leadership Cognitivist principles widely influence our learning processes today through techniques such as the use of discussion groups presentations written assignments case study analyses reflective writing and so on Social Learning Theory Monkey see Monkey do sometimes referred to as the monkey see monkey do theory of learning proposes that we learn through observing the behavior of others Bandura The theory explores how learning can occur by observing others Leadership skills may be learned by observing role models If the role model is attractive charismatic or admired observed skills are more likely to be learned Learning will be influenced by the treatment the role model receives for the behavior the more positive the greater the learning Learning a skill does not necessarily mean an individual will use the skill Learning must include cues of when the learner is to use the behavior There are several principles of social learning theory that apply to leadership development there is a difference between skill acquisition and behavior observer may well acquire the behavior without actually performing it if the model possesses characteristics that the observer sees as attractive power intelligence attractiveness charisma and popularity the observer will be more likely to try to emulate the behavior than if the role model is unattractive to the observer the observer will be influenced by the treatment the role model receives for the behavior if the model is rewarded the observer is more likely to try to simulate the behavior if the model is punished the observer is more likely to avoid the particular behavior Social learning is seen to require four processes Attention is the first process observer must not only recognize the behavior but also be able to recall it at the appropriate time in the future observer must have the capability of performing the act be it the intellectual emotional or physical capability observer requires motivation to perform the behavior Androgogy Adults learn differently from Children The theory focuses on how to make best use of the motivations of adult learners setting the learner squarely in the centre of the process Because adults learn differently the structure and processes of learning methods should reflect these differences Adults are most motivated to learn when there is immediate application of the skills perhaps to solve a problem or assist with a challenge Adults should help plan their learning The teacher should be more of a facilitator a peer assisting with the learning process Learning processes should be built on the past experiences of the learner Knowles principles of adult learning include the following Adults need to be involved in the planning and developing of their course of instruction Experience provides the basis for learning activities learning experience should be designed to build on the adult s prior experience Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life Adult learning is problem centered rather than content oriented Adults tend to attend learning experiences because they want to solve a problem or learn how to accomplish a task rather than simply master a body of knowledge Learning styles how individuals differ in learning styles Advances the work of cognitivism by proposing four main learning styles Activist - important to have an experience Prefer active learning Pragmatist - likes planning and testing new ideas Theorist - likes to develop concepts and ideas Reflector likes to learn given the time to observe and then reflect Avoid timed events The styles interact and a person can move through a cycle incorporating all four styles In practice the individual is likely to rely on one or more styles more than others Development should be structured to allow learning to occur via each style in order to reach all learners Is a method for learners to assess and understand their own preferred learning style Kolb developed a learning cycle in which he proposes that learners move through a circular learning process see Figure A learner could in theory start anywhere on the cycle and then move through the four phases in the process of learning the skill or concept Action Learning Learning by doing real projects at work Revans creates a deceptively simple equation that states that learning occurs through a combination of programmed knowledge and the ability to ask insightful questions L P Q Focuses on the optimum way to structure learning experiences Learning occurs best when learners combine programmed learning with the opportunity to solve real-life problems in the workplace Learning and problem-solving skills are typically enhanced through the use of learning sets or small groups which support each other in their learning and in addressing their projects Teamworking communication and feedback are skills that are learned through the sets in addition to technical problem-solving skills all key components of effective leadership Skills are learned by the individual but the organization also benefits from the resolution of issues The process of learning is generalized across the organization through the learning of many individuals The process is well accepted in many organizations as well as in institutions of higher education Several points from Revans theory The context in which action learning takes place is typically within the organization itself Two of the outcomes from action learning can be expected to be individual skill development in problem solving and the actual resolution of specific organizational problems generalization of the learning mode organizational outcomes occur based on any number of individuals learning Many action learning approaches centre on small groups or sets that support and critique each member s action learning projects Organizational Practices Organizations can either bring people in from outside the organization or develop those employees internally offering promotion and development to existing employees is regarded as good management practice in order to build morale and loyalty Table Organizational leadership development practices advantages and disadvantages Organizational leadership development methods Examples Advantages disadvantages Enrolment of leaders in university-based programs BA and MBA degrees Executive development courses Short courses Expert faculty Currency of ideas Well-designed curriculum Cost may be more Content may not be organization specific Development through job assignment Rotation along career path Secondments assigning individual to another part of the organization for a period of time and them bringing them back Job swapping less costly Job sharing typically used to meet the needs to young parents back to basics assignment managers spent time on the floor thought to keep them close to the customers subordinates and the heart of the business Provides unparalleled breadth of generalist knowledge Host area gains as well as the individual Organization may not be large enough to allow practice Cost of relocation may be high and impact on the individuals family Development through assessment and feedback Assessment centers see items below for components of assessment center feedback Psychometrics self discovery and analysis Performance reviews - Provides clear feedback on traits and behaviors Feedback is relatively objective Participants tend to accept feedback Costs may be high for assessment centers Participants may become immune if repeated over time Development through one-to-one support Mentoring and shadowing - Coaching one on one Prot g s have one-to-one interaction with the executive Opportunity to model leadership behavior Mentors should be trained to optimize the experience Time consuming for the executive Depends on the chemistry between the mentor and the prot g Structured learning programs In house training E-learning Corporate universities Community service Specialized programs Health promotion leader in good health are more productive Employee Assistance programs Learning centers Target specific development needs Flexibility for learner to pick and choose Relatively cost-effective Requires resources to coordinate and keep up to date Involvement may be scattered lack cohesiveness Table A three-track leadership development design Business track to learn about this organization Pre-residential workbook completion assignment Week-long business knowledge residential course Group case study Formal inputs and interactions with expert speakers Executive question and answer panel Syndicate presentation to senior panel Action learning project selection Action learning project team formation Action learning team member feedback Project support workshops financial analysis presentation skills project management Leadership track to develop skills in leading individuals teams and the organization feedback and psychometrics Week-long leadership institute Learning team design people Experiential learning exercises Facilitator- and media-based presentations inputs Assigned readings Self-analysis Buddy assignment for coaching and feedback Facilitator feedback and coaching Team project and presentations Intensive team feedback Selection of an at work leadership project Personal track to understand individual traits and behaviors for enhanced self-leadership assessment Personal reflection and development planning Psychometrics Team member feedback Coaching from facilitators At-work application and reflection Coaching relationship with their manager Workshop experiences and exercises Physical health assessment and improvement plan Longer-term professional development plan Learning Summary Given the basic characteristics and a desire to lead leadership skills and abilities can be enhanced through the learning process by learning to choose to employ effective behaviors while avoiding ineffective behaviors The learning theory of behaviorism shows that when an action is rewarded it will tend to be repeated The learning theory of cognitivism maintains that learning is a highly individualized internal process and experiences are best structured to cater to individual differences Social learning theory holds that learning occurs by observing others Also when the observed person is both attractive and receives positive feedback for his or her behavior learning is more profound for the observer Androgogy proposes that adults learn substantially differently from children primarily because their learning needs tend to be immediate and task oriented therefore learning activities should acknowledge this in their design Learning styles theory illustrates a cycle of learning in which a learner might prefer alternate styles such as testing experiencing reflecting or conceptualizing Action learning focuses on the process of learning and holds that individuals learn best by confronting a real problem while at the same time being involved in a structured learning program to support the problem resolution Methods by which organizations develop leadership ability include recruitment offering in-house training programs using university based programs rotating job assignments assessment and feedback processes one-to-one support and more comprehensive long running programs that employ a combination of these methods Leadership development in the future will rely less on classroom type development programs instead moving to processes that rely more on thoughtfully selected development work assignments Strategic Leadership Chapter A key aspect of organizational management is not only the choice of strategy but also the choice of the processes of strategy formulation and implementation In the modern corporation strategy might take a variety of forms depending upon problems history technology and personality Some authors differentiate strategic and managerial leadership Rowe claims that strategic leadership enhances the wealth creation process in entrepreneurial and established organizations and leads to above average results In contrast managerial leadership will achieve average returns at best and is likely to achieve below average returns and destroy wealth But Rowe was careful to offer three interesting definitions Strategic leadership is the ability to influence others voluntarily to make day-to-day decisions that enhance the long-term viability of the organization while maintaining results Managerial leadership involves stability and order He added an interesting third idea of visionary leadership which is future oriented and concerned with risk taking and noted that such people are not dependent upon their organizations for who they are Strategy Schools Coad has argued that it is useful to see that there have been three stages of strategic thinking The era of grand design and systematic planning -era was about the content of a strategy Environment Strategy- Conduct- Performance Design approach is clearly based upon an attempt to be rational and systematic in an uncertain turbulent and risky environment Its supporters do not claim that it was perfect but that it was better than any process that did not include these steps The critics claimed that this design process was an unhelpful bureaucraticisation of strategic management which needed creative and innovative thinking A sharper criticism was that the design school seems to be a good idea but It overestimates the capacity of managers to handle all of the complexity and uncertainty at the same time The real differences in views about goals and objectives as well as means would be stifled rather than examined It reflected a narrow unitary conception of a complex organization because the timescales of analysis feasibility and choice were very long not only would opportunities in dispersed parts of the organization be missed but also the design would be reconsidered even before it had been actioned The era of strategic positioning First era was about the content of the strategy - era not only built upon the first but also set out to establish that there were generic or universally applicable strategic positions cost leadership differentiation focus These five forces were threats from New entrants substitute products customer bargaining power suppliers bargaining power The intensity of interfirm competition By analyzing the value chain and especially its linkages it may be possible to see the basis of competitive cost advantage However Porter argued that there were only two sources of competitive advantage from either having overall cost leadership in the industry or differentiation Miles and Snow offered four possible strategic positions Prospectors who were entrepreneurially exploring new domains Analyzers who were a bit like the design school prescription Defenders who were interested only in responding to strategic problems by protecting themselves and Reactors who were only responsive to others The era of complexity Research suggested that any strategy was not so much designed but emerged from complex organizational processes and history So strategies even as attempts to be all encompassing were built upon what had gone before They were considered quite regularly remedial they were often triggered by problems to be solved and fragmented only parts of the organization could be considered Both the design era and the positioning era according to Coad emphasize predictability order and control in a world of complexity and uncertainty But the doubts remained about whether these approaches acknowledged enough of the uncertainty or risk or paid proper attention to the aspects of organizational life that economics does not capture The Strategic Leader There is a temptation to define strategic leaders in terms of their desirable traits e g integrity humility intellectual capacity action orientation visionary capability and strategic capability their behavior and style their charismatic and transformative behaviors Any role has the following three dimensions That ascribed in job definitions That of the interpretations of the role holder The interpretations and expectations of the organizational members and stakeholders The elements of configuring facilitating delivering evaluating and changing lie at the core of the strategic leader s role Although we separate them out in a hopefully neat schema do understand that They all go on all of the time in a complex organizational dance Configuring Strategy more a process of configuration than a choice of decision-making The role here is more of enabling the organization to consider its environment and its shifting characteristics The role here is not to make decisions as though organizational life was a business school case study but to help the organization to form an appreciation Vickers of its setting and its possibilities Facilitating Strategy - key role of strategic leadership is to ensure that the organization has and can build capability through building resources resource networks and their capability physical assets intangible assets and human assets Delivering Strategy - the third key role is of leading implementation to ensure that organizational programs and investment are aligned with the commitment of resources to programs Evaluating Strategy Leaders need to consider four levels of evaluation Compare what was intended with what happened and enquire into causes and meanings in order to learn but not to scapegoat or to punish Consider the ideas that informed the course of action consider whether these were well enough understood and seek gaps