1. How does variation arise as a result of normal sexual reproduction? Explain how sex and recombination via crossing over accomplishes this.
Variation arise in several ways. Recombination occurs during meiosis. As chromosomes pair up, sections of two chromosomes can switch (called crossing over). This switch causes a new combination to be formed. Plasmids, in bacteria, are transferred during sex. They provide new segments of DNA that is incorporated into the bacteria’s genome, giving it a new combination and resulting in a different variation.
2. Explain what Hugo DeVries discovered using primroses.
Hugo DeVries discovered the source of new traits using primroses. He was walking past a field of primroses when he discovered a wild type of primrose. Through several different experiments with primroses and other plant species, Hugo DeVries discovered that new traits appear in new generations and he named these traits “mutations”. His mutation theory says that new species arise because of random changes (known as mutations).
3. Explain each of the following mutations with examples:
a. Point mutations
Point mutations arise from few alterations in the DNA. One or several bases are changed. A base change can result in a different codon. Insertion adds a nucleotide to the chain while deletion takes away one. Substitution replaces a nucleotide with another. An example of point mutations is sickle-cell anemia in which one nucleotide is changed which results in a different codon and contributes to altering the resulting protein’s shape (and thus, the hemoglobin’s shape).
b. Gene duplications/deletions
Gene duplications occur due to mistakes during crossing-over in meiosis. Sometimes homologous chromosomes erroneously produce unequal crossing over. Some of these mutations will not cause a harmful reaction because the normal proteins can still exist. For example, hemoglobin only requires four subunits, but it contains six. Four of these subunits are active corresponding to the age of the individual.
c. Chromosomal mutations
Chromosomal inversion is when large parts of DNA are switched so the sequences are switched. Chromosomal translocation is when parts of chromosomes are moved to other parts of the genome (to other parts of different chromosomes). Chromosomal inversion can be seen among the DNA of fruit flies. Some combinations (resulting from inversion) are better in different types of weather. Polyploidy is when whole sets of chromosomes are added to an individual’s genome.
4. What are the Hox genes? How are they thought to have played a role in the evolutionary process?
Hox genes are homeotic genes, which are genes that control other genes, which in turn control the formation of body parts. Hox genes are important because, if they mutate and malfunction, the individual will have an abnormal body. Mutated Hox genes have been observed in the bodies of fruit flies; some fruit flies have a leg replaces an antenna or the fly has two pairs of wings. Often these mutations are detrimental since most take the place of other, more important and crucial body parts. Other changes can be useful and help the species evolve. Even small changes to Hox genes contribute to a much larger change in phenotype.
5. Explain why sex and mutations are important from an evolutionary standpoint.
Sex and mutations are important because they generate variation. During gamete formation, genes are randomly placed together. Meiosis I overlooks crossing over in which more genes are changed to contain new combinations. These already different combinations join with equally random combinations when two gametes fuse. Mutations can occur anytime during the process and contribute to the generation of variation.
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