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ms_lazy ms_lazy
wrote...
13 years ago
Why can't fatty acids DIRECTLY be metabolized to form glucose?
A) Because they are hydrophobic
B) Although pyruvate can be metabolized to Acetyl CoA, Acetyl CoA cannot be metabolized to pyrivate as this step is irrevesible
C) Because all fatty acids removed from triglycerides are metabolized to glycogen

During starvation, a decrease insulin to glucagon ration and a decrease in circulating substrates causes all of the following except?
A) Glycogenesis
B) Protein deamination
C) Gluconeogenesis
D) Lipolysis
E) Ketogenesis

The more recent and accepted theory regarding ATP production states that the aerobic metabolism of one glucose molecule results in the production of 30-32 ATP molecules by the electron transport chain. What causes the range of ATP production instead of a specific number of ATP produced?

A) The range indicates that sometimes each reoxidized NADH produces 3 ATP molecules versus 2.5 ATP molecules
B) The range indicates that sometimes each reoxidized FADH produces 2 ATP molecules versus 1.5 ATP molecules
C) The range indicates that sometimes NADH produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria matrix and only stimulate the 2nd and 3rd pumps of the electron chain, like FADH, resulting in the production of only 1.5 ATP versus 2.5 ATP molecules.
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wrote...
Educator
13 years ago
Why can't fatty acids DIRECTLY be metabolized to form glucose?

A) Because they are hydrophobic
B) Although pyruvate can be metabolized to Acetyl CoA, Acetyl CoA cannot be metabolized to pyrivate as this step is irrevesible
C) Because all fatty acids removed from triglycerides are metabolized to glycogen

During starvation, a decrease insulin to glucagon ration and a decrease in circulating substrates causes all of the following except?
A) Glycogenesis
B) Protein deamination
C) Gluconeogenesis
D) Lipolysis
E) Ketogenesis

The more recent and accepted theory regarding ATP production states that the aerobic metabolism of one glucose molecule results in the production of 30-32 ATP molecules by the electron transport chain. What causes the range of ATP production instead of a specific number of ATP produced?

A) The range indicates that sometimes each reoxidized NADH produces 3 ATP molecules versus 2.5 ATP molecules

B) The range indicates that sometimes each reoxidized FADH produces 2 ATP molecules versus 1.5 ATP molecules

C) The range indicates that sometimes NADH produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria matrix and only stimulate the 2nd and 3rd pumps of the electron chain, like FADH, resulting in the production of only 1.5 ATP versus 2.5 ATP molecules.

How many ATPs are generated by this process? Theoretically, for each glucose molecule, 32 ATPs can be produced. As electrons drop from NADH to oxygen in the chain, the number of protons pumped out and returning through ATP synthase can produce 2.5 ATPs per electron pair. For each pair donated by FADH2, only 1.5 ATPs can be formed. Twelve pairs of electrons are removed from each glucose molecule;

10 by NAD+ = 25 ATPs
2 by FADH2 = 3 ATPs.

Making a total of 28 ATPs. However, 2 ATPs are formed during the Krebs' cycle and 2 ATPs formed during glycolysis for each glucose molecule therefore making a total ATP yield of 32 ATPs. In reality, the energy from the respiratory chain is used for other processes (such as active transport of important ions and molecules) so under conditions of normal respiration, the actual ATP yield probably does not reach 32 ATPs.

The reducing equivalents that fuel the electron transport chain, namely NADH and FADH2, are produced by the Krebs cycle (TCA cycle) and the beta-oxidation of fatty acids. At three steps in the Krebs cycle (isocitrate conversion to oxoglutarate; oxoglutarate conversion to succinyl-CoA; Malate conversion to oxaloacetate), a pair of electrons (2e-) are removed and transferred to NAD+, forming NADH and H+. At a single step, a pair of electrons are removed from succinate, reducing FAD to FADH2. From the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, one step in the process forms NADH and H+ and another step forms FADH2.

Cytoplasmic NADH, generated from glycolysis, has to be oxidized to reform NAD+, essential for glycolysis, otherwise glycolysis would cease to function. There is no carrier that transports NADH directly into the mitochondrial matrix and the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH so the cell uses two shuttle systems to move reducing equivalents into the mitochondrion and regenerate cytosolic NAD+.
The first is the glycerol phosphate shuttle, which uses electrons from cytosolic NADH to produce FADH2 within the inner membrane. These electrons then flow to Coenzyme Q. Complex I is bypassed so only 1.5 ATPs can be formed per NADH via this route.
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