Ch07 From Infancy to Old Age Development Across the Lifespan

Chapter 7 From Infancy to Old Age: Development Across the Lifespan Infancy Infant Gender Differences Similarities are the rule for most behaviors However, boys are more active (d=.29) Temperament Girls score higher on inhibitory control (d=-.41) Girls score higher on perceptual sensitivity (d=-.38) No gender differences in negative affect or mood Adults’ Treatment of Infants Parents generally treat boys and girls similarly Mothers’ expectations of infant crawling abilities Baby X Study Gender is a crucial part of information when we form impressions of others, and we make up a gender when we don’t know for sure Gender Learning Habituation paradigm Babies can distinguish male and female faces Childhood Gender Learning Gender identity (2 y) Labeling boys and girls (3 y) Associate attributions and occupations with gender Preschoolers are gender essentialists Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental model Gender self-socialization model Gender identity, stereotypes, and self-perceptions influence each other via stereotype emulation and identity construction Gender discrimination Childhood Gender Differences Several reliable gender differences Toy and game preference Aggressive behavior Socialization: the process by which society conveys to the individual its expectations for his or her behavior, values, and beliefs Parents are a major source of gender socialization Channeling or shaping Differential treatment Direct instruction Modeling Parents Talk differently with daughters vs. sons, though much of gender teaching in parents’ talk is subtle, implicit Play differently with daughters vs. sons Have different expectations for boys and girls (if they have traditional gender-role attitudes) Gender socialization practices vary across different ethnic groups in the US Childhood As children grow older, schools, the media, and peers become increasingly important sources of gender socialization Schools often transmit stereotypes Teachers pay more attention to boys Teachers praise girls for decorous conduct and boys for good academic performance When teachers receive gender-equity training, they respond with more equitable teaching Gender salience in the classroom The media Toy commercials: usually gender-specific Picture books: feminine traits in female characters Video games: patterns of extreme gender stereotyping, including violence against women, played more by boys Effects on children’s gender-role attitudes Peers and the Gender Segregation Effect Eleanor Maccoby (1998) Gendered patterns of behavior are not solely the result of socialization by forces such as parents and the media Children seek out same-gender peer groups, which differ in terms of activities Boys: rough play, risk, dominance Girls: self-disclosure, reduce conflict Much of childhood gender segregation results from biological or psychological forces within the child Few gender differences when children play alone School Girls make adjustment to school better than boys Girls are more likely to do their homework, earn better grades, have more positive interactions with teachers Sexualization of Girls Sexualization: when a person is valued only for sex appeal, is sexually objectified, or when sexuality is inappropriately imposed on a person APA Task Force Report Exposure to Barbie lowers body esteem in 5- to 8-year-old girls Objectifying gazes lead to decrements in math performance among women Tomboys Two-thirds of girls were tomboys in childhood Starts around age 5, ends around age 12, at the dawn of adolescence Adolescence Gender Intensification: increased pressures for gender-role conformity beginning in early adolescence Not as strong as it used to be, or just more subtle Friendship and Dating Same-gender friendships as in adulthood But friendship networks become less gender-segregated Dating relationships serve a developmental function: learn about self, sexuality Heterosexual, gendered scripts, involving power differentials between boy and girl Girls valued for appearance, boys for athletics Sexual Harassment AAUW national survey 79% of boys and 83% of girls experienced peer sexual harassment Includes sexual touching, forced kissing, spreading sexual rumors Girls are more likely than boys to feel self-conscious, embarrassed, less confident, and change behavior Weight Worries Adolescent girls have more negative body esteem than adolescent boys, d = -.58 Normative discontent The role of the media Media exposure leads to increased weight concerns Ethnic group differences White, Latina, and Asian American women Fat talk Transgressions: Athletics and Anger Title IX One-third of high school athletes in US are girls Adolescent team sports participation predicts greater self-esteem in later years Lyn Mikel Brown (1998) Some adolescent girls actively resist against traditional gender roles The Search for Identity and a Future Erik Erikson (1950) Primary adolescent developmental crisis is quest for identity Androcentric theory: focus was on males; girls in a state of “identity suspension” Females define selves in interpersonal terms, developing interpersonal and autonomous identities, whereas boys mainly develop an autonomous identity Adolescent girls vary considerably among themselves in what components they believe will shape their identities Emerging Adulthood: a suspended state of not being a teenager but not yet being an adult, extending through early 20s Women and Work: see chapter 9 Heterosexual Marriage 86% of American women marry by age 40 Average age of first marriage: 25 y Emerging Adulthood Jesse Bernard His and Hers marriage Marriage is better for men than for women, but good for both Quality of marriage is most important Pregnancy and Childbirth First birth at 24 y First Trimester Morning sickness Heightened well-being or emotional turmoil? Second Trimester Feel fetal movement Third Trimester Uterus puts pressure on lungs and stomach Physical and psychological changes of pregnancy are strongly influenced by contextual factors of woman’s life Feminist analysis: Medicalization of pregnancy and childbirth Childbirth options Motherhood Parenthood associated with psychological distress Motherhood mandate: the cultural belief that all women should have children, that is, be mothers Mother Wars Most women gain satisfaction from motherhood, but the degree of satisfaction depends on contextual factors Intensive mothering and impossible ideals Voluntary childlessness (or child-free) in women Higher in autonomy and achievement orientation Psychology’s history of mother-blaming Divorce 40-50% of all marriages end in divorce Ethnic group differences 70-75% of divorced women remarry Research on psychological effects of divorce is mixed Research on economic effects of divorce Divorced women and their children are new underclass Divorced men experience a 42% increase in standard of living, whereas women experience a 73% decrease Role strain and role overload Divorce is harder on Black women Less likely to get child support, more likely to live in poverty Single Women 21% of American women are single, never married Ethnic group differences Advantages of being single: Freedom Sense of self-sufficiency and competence Women who are satisfied with long-term single status Satisfying employment that provides economic independence Connections to next generation Strong social support network Empty Nest or Prime of Life? Empty nest syndrome: depression that middle-aged people supposedly feel when their children are grown and have left home, leaving an empty nest Lillian B. Rubin (1979) Although some women are momentarily sad, lonely, or frightened, they weren’t depressed Predominant feeling is relief Prime of Life 70% of 60-65 year old women describe current lives as better than when they were younger Body Worries, Again Investment in appearance, body dissatisfaction, and television exposure all predict actual consideration of cosmetic surgery Middle Age Grandmotherhood Ethnic group differences in grandmother role Grandmother effect Retirement Most studies based on all-male samples Women are more likely to retire because of spouse’s retirement Income concerns Old Age Old Age Double standard of aging: cultural norms by which men’s status increases with age but women’s decreases Physical Health Although women live longer than men, they have more chronic illnesses Or do they just report them more? Many elderly women live alone Ethnic group differences: living with extended family Widowhood Women are more likely to be widowed than men are Opportunities for remarriage are limited because of lopsided gender ratio In Conclusion Infancy gender similarities mostly, though girls show higher inhibitory control & perceptual sensitivity Childhood Gender differences in toy & game preferences, gender-segregated play Adolescence Interpersonal and autonomous identity development Emerging Adulthood Good marriage benefits women’s mental and physical health Medicalization of pregnancy and childbirth Middle Age Most women fare well during “empty nest” Old Age Grandmother role is important and meaningful for many women The Developing Person Through the Life Span Prenatal Development and Birth Prenatal Growth Three main periods of prenatal development Germinal Period (1st two weeks after conception): rapid cell division and beginning of cell differentiation Embryonic Period (3rd through 8th week): basic forms of all body structures develop Fetal Period (9th week until birth): fetus grows in size and matures in functioning The Germinal Period Zygote begins duplication and division within hours of conception Development of the placenta Organ that surrounds the developing embryo Sustains life via the umbilical chord Implantation (about 10 days after conception) Developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus The Germinal Period The Embryonic Period Embryo 3rd through the 8th week after conception Begins when the primitive streak appears down the middle of the cell mass Primitive streak becomes the neural tube and later the brain and spinal column Eyes, ears, nose, and mouth form Heart begins to pulsate Extremities develop and webbed fingers and toes separate The Embryonic Period The Fetal Period Fetus 9th week after conception until birth Genitals form and sex hormones cause differences brain organization Cephalocaudal and proximodistal growth Heartbeat detectable via stethoscope Cortex is not fully mature at birth Brain at birth is biggest part of baby The Fetal Period Age of viability Age at which a preterm newborn may survive outside the womb with medical care About 22 weeks after conception Brain is able to regulate basic body functions Chances of survival increase with each day after the 22-week mark The Fetal Period Birth Fetal brain signals the release of hormones to trigger the mother’s uterine muscles Labor begins Average duration for first babies: 12 hours Quicker labor for later babies Apgar scale Quick assessment of newborn’s heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, color, and reflexes Completed twice (1 minute and 5 minutes after birth) Score of 0, 1, or 2 in each category Desired score: 7 (total) or above Birth Medical Assistance Cesarean Section (c-section) Surgical birth Fetus can be removed quickly Rates and reasons for c-sections vary Lower rates in poorer countries Higher rates in richer countries 1/3 of births in the United States Less trauma for the newborn but slower recovery for the mother Subsequent cesarean deliveries may be necessary Newborn Survival Infant mortality has decreased due to better medical care 1900: 5% Today: <1 in 200 Childbirth has become safer for mothers Death rate in poorest nations: 1 in 20 women Excessive medical care also has disadvantages Increase in unnecessary c-sections is associated with higher rate of low-birth weight babies Traditional and Modern Birthing Practices Home births Hospital births Doula Woman who helps with labor, delivery, breast-feeding, and newborn care May be related to lower rate of cesarean sections Harmful Substances Teratogens Substances and conditions that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death Not all teratogens can be avoided Structural abnormalities are obvious at birth Behavioral teratogens Affect the child’s developing brain Developmental retardation, hyperactivity, and learning disabilities Effects do not become evident for months or years Risk Analysis Knowing which risks are worth taking How to minimize chance of harm Teratology: science of risk analysis Threshold effect: when a teratogen is harmless in small doses but becomes harmful at a certain level (threshold) Applying the Research Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) A cluster of birth defects including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and retarded mental development May occur in the child of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant Low Birthweight Low birthweight (LBW) Less than 2,500 grams (5½ pounds) at birth United States Steady increase in LBW over the past 25 years 8% of newborns are seriously underweight More susceptible to teratogens, higher birth risks, lower survival rate Very low birthweight (VLBW) Under 1,500 grams (3 pounds, 5 ounces) at birth Extremely low birthweight (ELBW) Under 1,000 grams (2 pounds, 3 ounces) at birth Preterm or Slow Growing? Preterm Birth that occurs at 35 or fewer weeks after conception Usually associated with low birthweight Small for gestational age (SGA) Birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception Suggests impairment throughout prenatal development and serious problems Complications During Birth Cerebral palsy: -damage to the brain’s motor centers -speech and/or muscles are impaired Anoxia: -lack of oxygen -over time can cause brain damage or death Moving and Perceiving The Newborn The first movements are not skills but reflexes, involuntary responses to a particular stimulus. The Newborn breathing thrashing shivering sucking rooting swallowing spitting up The Newborn Babinski reflex. When feet are stroked, their toes fan upward. Stepping reflex. When held upright with feet touching a flat surface, infants move their legs as if to walk. Swimming reflex. When laid horizontally on their stomachs, infants stretch out their arms and legs. Palmar grasping reflex. When something touches infants’ palms, they grip it tightly. Moro reflex. When someone startles them, infants fling their arms outward and then bring them together on their chests, as if to hold on to something, while crying with wide-open eyes. The Father’s Role Supportive father helps mother stay healthy Father can decrease or increase mother’s stress (affects fetus) The Father’s Role Couvade: symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers Parental alliance: cooperation between a mother and a father based on their mutual commitment to their children the parents support each other in their shared parental roles. Postpartum Depression Sadness and inadequacy felt by 8-15% of new mothers in the days and weeks after giving birth baby blues most common. Postpartum depression (postpartum psychosis) baby care feels burdensome and thoughts of mistreating the infant may exist Paternal involvement can have beneficial effect Some fathers are depressed themselves Causes for Postpartum Depression vary Bonding Parent-Infant Bond The strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed the newborn Early skin-to-skin contact is not essential Cross-fostering in monkeys Newborns are removed from their mothers and raised by another female or male Strong and beneficial relationship sometimes develops Bonding Birth complications can have lingering impact on later life Mothers and fathers should help with early caregiving if newborn must stay in the hospital Kangaroo care Child-care technique in which the mother of a LBW infant holds the baby between her breasts Allows baby to hear mother’s heartbeat and feel her body heat Research confirms beneficial effects