Ch08 MCAT Passages 41-50.docx

Chapter 8 MCAT Verbal Reasoning Exercises Passage 41 One likes to think that one’s attitudes, beliefs, and related behavior form a consistent pattern. Incongruity that is detected results in a sense of imbalance or dissonance, which the person then seeks to correct. The motivating effects of the need to correct incongruity, imbalance, or dissonance has been the occasion for several theories. We may select for consideration the theory proposed by Festinger which treats cognitive dissonance and its reduction. The kind of disagreement or disharmony with which Festinger has been chiefly concerned is that which occurs after a decision has been made, after one is committed to a course of action; under such circumstances there is often some lack of harmony between what one does and what one believes, and there is pressure to change either one’s behavior or one’s beliefs. For example, if a regular smoker reads about the relationship between smoking and lung cancer, the habitual action and the new information are dissonant. If the decision is made to continue smoking, the dissonance will be reduced by disbelieving the information about the relationship between smoking and lung cancer; if the decision is made to give up smoking, the information on the linkage between smoking and lung cancer will be accepted. The fact that this information also affected the decision is not important here. As Festinger and others have shown, the weighing of alternatives is more realistic prior to the decision; after the decision the pressure is great to bring belief and action into balance. The theory goes on to make some non-obvious predictions: for example, in some cases failure of expectations instead of destroying belief may strengthen it. This was illustrated by the study of a group of people who expected to be saved from a prophesied disastrous flood by the intervention of a heavenly being. The theory predicted that when the long-awaited day arrived and the prophecy failed (no flood), those who had the social support of the other believers would indeed proselyte for their beliefs with new enthusiasm; while those who had to face the crisis alone would have their faith weakened. These predicted results did indeed occur, the rationalization for the group of disappointed believers who faced failure together being that God had postponed his vengeance because of their faith. The tendency to be consistent is but one aspect of how self-perception influences motivation. Earlier illustrations of human motivation might also be reinterpreted in these terms. For example, the success motivation and the avoidance of failure are also concerned with how a person sees himself. R. W. White, for example, reinterprets many motives concerned with curiosity, and desire for knowledge and for achievement as though they are all concerned with one’s sense of competence as a person who is effective in relation to the environment. In another sense, the person likes to develop his potentials to the full, to be as complete a person as he can. For such a pervasive type of motive, the expression self-actualization was coined, originally by Carl Jung, one of Freud’s followers who later developed a system of his own. By self-actualization he meant the development of full individuality, with all parts somehow in harmony. The term and closely related ones (productive orientation, creative becoming, etc.), have been used by many psychologists who criticize contemporary motivational theory as being too narrow, concerned with short episodes of choice and behavior rather than with the more profound and pervasive aspects of individual hopes and aspirations. 1. Which of the following situations is most likely to give rise to cognitive dissonance? A. Baseball fans watching their team lose. B. An antique collector being told by an expert that the vase he has just paid $75 for is worth only $25. C. Student failing an exam. D. Man cutting himself shaving. 2. In the case that one’s expectations fail, belief A. will be destroyed. B. will be shaken, but not destroyed. C. will be strengthened. D. may be destroyed or strengthened. 3. With which of the following statements would Jung be most likely to agree? A. Parents should not allow their children to smoke. B. Parents should force their children to study piano. C. Parents should give their children complete freedom. D. Parents should encourage their children to pursue any interests they might have. 4. Consistency is most important in the theories of A. Festinger. B. White. C. Jung. D. Freud. 5. This passage probably comes from: A. the introduction to a book. B. the first chapter of a book. C. the middle of a textbook. D. an article in a news weekly. 6. The best title for this passage would be A. “Self-actualization.” B. “Self-reference in Human Motivation.” C. “The Reduction of Cognitive Dissonance.” D. “Cognitive Dissonance and the Self.” Passage 42 Although the generals and admirals have increasingly become involved in political and economic decisions, they have not shed the effects of the military training which has moulded their characters and outlook. Yet on the higher levels of their new careers, the terms of their success have changed. Examining them closely today, one comes to see that some are not so different from corporation executives as one had first supposed, and that others seem more like politicians of a curious sort than like traditional images of the military. It has been said that a military man, acting as Secretary of Defense for example, might be more civilian in effect than a civilian who, knowing little of military affairs and personnel, is easily hoodwinked by the generals and admirals who surround him. It might also be felt that the military man in politics does not have a strong-willed, new, and decisive line of policy, and even that, in a civilian political world, the general becomes aimless and, in his lack of know-how and purpose, even weak. On the other hand, we must not forget the self-confidence that is instilled by the military training and career: those who are successful in military careers very often gain thereby a confidence which they readily carry over into economic and political realms. Like other people, they are of course open to the advice and moral support of old friends who, in the historical isolation of the military career, are predominantly military. Whatever the case may be with individuals, as a coherent group, the military is probably the most competent now concerned with national policy; no other group has had the training in coordinated economic, political, and military affairs; no other group has had the continuous experience in the making of decisions; no other group so readily “internalizes” the skills of other groups nor so readily engages their skills on its own behalf; no other group has such steady access to world-wide information. Moreover, the military definitions of political and economic reality that now generally prevail among the most civilian of politicians cannot be said to weaken the confidence of the warlords, their will to make policy, or their capacity to do so within the higher circles. The “politicalization” of the high military that has been going on over the last fifteen years is a rather intricate process: As members of a professional officer corps, some military persons develop a vested interest— personal, institutional, ideological—in the enlargement of all things military. As bureaucrats, some are zealous to enlarge their own particular domains. As powerful individuals, some develop quite arrogant, and others quite shrewd, drives to influence, enjoying as a high value the exercise of power. enthusiastic approval of its climb to power. overall approval of military persons in government. a scathing, damning indictment of our political process. a careful, wary look at the entry of the military into political power. 1. The most likely title for this passage would be A. “The New Bureaucrats” B. “Politics in the Military” C. “The Military Ascendancy” D. “The Power Elite” 2. The author’s view of the military establishment seems to be A. B. C. D. 3. The author views the ability of military persons in political and economic circles as A. most competent and capable. B. weak and dangerously inept. C. bordering on treason. D. incompetent and open to corruption. 4. The intrusion of persons with military training into political life A. will result in an eventual military dictatorship. B. is a rather simple process. C. is a complicated process with varying results. D. involves the collusion of “bureaucrats.” 5. In American history, the military establishment has traditionally A. exercised independent power in pursuit of national goals. B. followed the dictates of the Republican party. C. forbidden any retired member to enter civilian government. D. been under the control of the civilian authority. Passage 43 In any country, the wages commanded by laborers who have comparable skills but who work in various industries are determined by the productivity of the least productive unit of labor, i.e. that unit of labor which works in the industry which has the greatest economic disadvantage. We will represent the various opportunities of employment in a country like the United States by symbols: A, standing for a group of industries in which we have exceptional economic advantages over foreign countries; B, for a group in which our advantages are less; C, one in which they are still less; D, the group of industries in which they are least of all. When our population is so small that all our labor can be engaged in the group represented by A, productivity of labor (and therefore wages) will be at their maximum. When our population increases so that some of the labor will have to be set to work in group B. the wages of all labor must decline to the level of the productivity in that group. But no employer, without government aid, will yet be able to afford to hire labor to exploit the opportunities represented by C and D, unless there is a further increase in population. But suppose that the political party in power holds the belief that we should produce everything that we consume, that the opportunities represented by C and D should be exploited. The commodities that the industries composing C and D will produce have been hitherto obtained from abroad in exchange for commodities produced by A and B. The government now renders this difficult by placing high duties upon the former class of commodities. This means that workers in A and B must pay higher prices for what they buy, but do not receive higher prices for what they sell. After the duty has gone into effect and the prices of commodities that can be produced by C and D have risen sufficiently, enterprisers will be able to hire labor at the wages prevailing in A and B and establish industries in C and D. So far as the remaining laborers in A and B buy the products of C and D, the difference between the price which they pay for those products and the price that they would pay if they were permitted to import those products duty-free is a tax paid not to the government, but to the producers in C and D, to enable the latter to remain in business. It is an uncompensated deduction from the natural earnings of the laborers in A and B. Nor are the workers in C and D paid as much, estimated in purchasing power, as they would have received if they had been allowed to remain in A and B under the earlier conditions. 1. When C and D are established, workers in these industries A. receive higher wages than do the workers in A and B. B. receive lower wages than do the workers in A and B. C. receive wages equal to those workers in A and B. D. are not affected so adversely by the levying of duties as are workers in A and B. 2. We cannot exploit C and D unless A. the productivity of labor in all industries is increased. B. the prices of commodities produced by A and B are raised. C. we export large quantities of commodities produced by A and B. D. the producers in C and D are compensated for the disadvantages under which they 58 operate. 3. “No employer, without government aid, will … be able to afford to hire labor to exploit the opportunities represented by C and D” because A. productivity of labor is not at the maximum. B. we cannot produce everything we consume. C. the population has increased. D. enterprisers would have to pay wages equivalent to those obtained by workers in A and B while producing under greater economic disadvantages. 4. The government, when it places high duties on imported commodities of classes C and D, A. raises the price of commodities produced by A and B. B. is, in effect, taxing the workers in A and B. C. raises the wages of workers in C and D at the expense of the workers in A and B. D. does not affect the productivity of the workers in A and B. although the wages of these workers are reduced. 5. The author’s main point is that A. it is impossible to attain national self-sufficiency. B. the varying productivity of the various industries leads to the inequalities in wages of workers in these industries. C. a policy that draws labor from the fields of greater natural productiveness to fields of lower natural productiveness tends to reduce purchasing power. D. wages ought to be independent of international trade. 6. The author’s arguments in this passage could best be used to A. refute the belief that it is theoretically possible for us to produce everything that we consume. B. disprove the theory that national self-sufficiency can be obtained by means of protective tariffs. C. advocate the levying of duties on imported goods. D. advocate free trade. 7. When could C and D, as here defined, be exploited without the assistance of an artificially boosted price and without resultant lowering of wage levels? A. When a duty is placed on competing products from other countries. B. When the products of C and D are exchanged in trade for other commodities. C. When the country becomes economically self-sufficient. D. At no time. 8. In the last sentence in the selection, the statement is made: “Nor are the workers in C and D paid as much, estimated in purchasing power, as they would have received if they had been allowed to remain in A and B under the earlier conditions.” This is because A. wages in all groups have declined. B. C and D cannot pay so high wages as can A and B. C. products of C and D do not command sufficiently high prices. D. there has not been an increase in population. Passage 44 However important we may regard school life to be, there is no gainsaying the fact that children spend more time at home than in the classroom. Therefore, the great influence of parents cannot be ignored or discounted by the teacher. They can become strong allies of the school personnel or they can consciously or unconsciously hinder and thwart curricular objectives. Administrators have been aware of the need to keep parents apprised of the newer methods used in schools. Many principals have conducted workshops explaining such matters as the reading readiness program, manuscript writing, and developmental mathematics. Moreover, the classroom teacher, with the permission of the supervisors, can also play an important role in enlightening parents. The many interviews carried on during the year, as well as new ways of reporting pupils’ progress, can significantly aid in achieving a harmonious interplay between school and home. To illustrate, suppose that a father has been drilling Junior in arithmetic processes night after night. In a friendly interview, the teacher can help the parent sublimate his natural paternal interest into productive channels. He might be persuaded to let Junior participate in discussing the family budget, buying the food, using a yardstick or measuring cup at home, setting the clock, calculating mileage on a trip, and engaging in scores of other activities that have a mathematical basis. If the father follows the advice, it is reasonable to assume that he will soon realize his son is making satisfactory progress in mathematics, and at the same time, enjoying the work. Too often, however, teachers’ conferences with parents are devoted to petty accounts of children’s misdemeanors, complaints about laziness and poor work habits, and suggestions for penalties and rewards at home. What is needed is a more creative approach in which the teacher, as a professional adviser, plants ideas in parents’ minds for the best utilization of the many hours that the child spends out of the classroom. In this way, the school and the home join forces in fostering the fullest development of youngsters’ capacities. 1. The central idea conveyed in the above passage is A. home training is more important than school training because a child spends so many hours with his parents. B. teachers can and should help parents to understand and further the objectives of the school. C. parents unwittingly have hindered and thwarted curricular objectives. D. there are many ways in which the mathematics program can be implemented at home. 2. The author directly discusses the fact that A. parents drill their children too much in arithmetic. B. principals have explained the new art programs to parents. C. a father can have his son help him construct articles at home. D. a parent’s misguided efforts can be redirected to proper channels. 3. It can reasonably be inferred that the author A. is satisfied with present relationships between home and school. B. feels that the traditional program in mathematics is slightly superior to the developmental program. C. believes that schools are lacking in guidance personnel. D. feels that parent-teacher interviews can be made much more constructive than they are at present. 4. A method of parent-teacher communication not mentioned or referred to by the author is A. classes for parents. B. new progress report forms. C. parent-teacher interviews. D. demonstration lessons. 5. The author implies that A. participation in interesting activities relating to a subject improves one’s achievement in that area. B. too many children are lazy and have poor work habits. C. school principals do more than their share in interpreting the curriculum to the parents. D. only a small part of the school day should be set apart for drilling in arithmetic. 6. The author’s purpose in writing this passage is to A. tell parents to pay more attention to the guidance of teachers in the matter of educational activities in the home. B. help ensure that every child’s capacities are actually fully developed when he leaves school. C. urge teachers and school administrators to make use of a much underused resource - the parent. D. improve the teaching of mathematics. 7. It is most reasonable to infer that the author is a(n) A. elementary school teacher. B. parent. C. student. D. professor of education. Passage 45 In the Federal Convention of 1787, the members were fairly well agreed as to the desirability of some check on state laws; but there was sharp difference of opinion whether this check should be political in character as in the form of a congressional veto, or whether the principle of judicial review should be adopted. Madison was one of the most persistent advocates of the congressional veto and in his discussion of the subject he referred several times to the former imperial prerogative of disallowing provincial statutes. In March, 1787, he wrote to Jefferson, urging the necessity of a federal negative upon state laws. He referred to previous colonial experience in the suggestion that there should be “some emanation” of the federal prerogative “within the several states, so far as to enable them to give a temporary sanction to laws of immediate necessity.” This had been provided for in the imperial system through the action of the royal governor in giving immediate effect to statutes, which nevertheless remained subject to royal disallowance. In a letter to Randolph a few weeks later, Madison referred more explicitly to the British practice, urging that the national government be given “a negative, in all cases whatsoever, on the Legislative acts of the States, as the King of Great Britain heretofore had.” Jefferson did not agree with Madison; on practical grounds rather than as a matter of principle, he expressed his preference for some form of judicial control. On July 17, Madison came forward with a speech in support of the congressional veto, again supporting his contention by reference to the royal disallowance of colonial laws: “Its utility is sufficiently displayed in the British System. Nothing could maintain the harmony and subordination of the various parts of the empire, but the prerogative by which the Crown stifles in the birth every Act of every part tending to discord or encroachment. It is true the prerogative is sometimes misapplied through ignorance or a partiality to one particular part of the empire: but we have not the same reason to fear such misapplications in our System.” This is almost precisely Jefferson’s theory of the legitimate function of an imperial veto. This whole issue shows that the leaders who wrestled with confederation problems during and after the war understood, in some measure at least, the attitude of British administrators when confronted with the stubborn localism of a provincial assembly. 1. Madison was advocating A. royal disallowance of state legislation B. a political check on state laws C. the supremacy of the states over the federal government D. the maintenance of a royal governor to give immediate effect to statutes 2. From this passage there is no indication A. of what judicial review would entail. B. of Jefferson’s stand on the question of a check on state laws. C. that the royal negative had been misapplied in the past. D. that Jefferson understood the attitude of British administrators. 3. According to this passage, Madison believed that the federal government A. ought to legislate for the states. B. should recognize the sovereignty of the several states. C. ought to exercise judicial control over state legislation. D. should assume the king’s veto power. 4. Madison’s conception of a congressional veto A. was opposed to Jefferson’s conception of a congressional veto. B. developed from fear that the imperial negative might be misused. C. was that the federal prerogative should be exercised in disallowing state laws. D. was that its primary function was to give temporary sanction to laws of immediate necessity. 5. Madison believed that A. the congressional veto would not be abused. B. the royal prerogative ought to have some form of check to correct misapplications. C. the review of state legislation by the federal government ought to remain subject to a higher veto. D. the imperial veto had not been misused. 6. Jefferson believed that A. the congressional veto would interfere with states’ rights. B. Madison’s proposal smacked of imperialism. C. the veto of state legislation was outside the limits of the federal prerogative. D. the British System would be harmful if applied in the United States. 7. Madison’s main principle was that A. the national interest is more important than the interests of any one state. B. the national government should have compulsive power over the states. C. the king can do no wrong. D. the United States should follow the English pattern of government. 8. Madison thought of the states as A. emanations of the federal government. B. comparable to provinces of a colonial empire. C. incapable of creating sound legislation. D. having no rights specifically delegated to them. 9. Which of the following is the best argument which could be made against Madison’s proposition? A. The United States has no king. B. The federal government is an entity outside the jurisdiction of the states. C. Each state has local problems concerning which representatives from other states are not equipped to pass judgement. D. The federal prerogative had been misusedin the past. Passage 46 Hong Kong’s size and association with Britain, and its position in relation to its neighbors in the Pacific, particularly China, determine the course of conduct it has to pursue. Hong Kong is no more than a molecule in the great substance of China. Its area is a mere 398 square miles. Fortunately, however, we cannot dispose of Hong Kong as simply as this. There are components in its complex and unique existence which affect its character and, out of all physical proportion, increase its significance. Among these, the most potent are its people, their impressive achievements in partnership with British administration and enterprise, and the rule of law which protects personal freedom in the British tradition. What is Hong Kong, and what is it trying to do? In 1841 Britain acquired outright, by treaty, the Island of Hong Kong, to use as a base for trade with China, and in 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula, to complete the perimeter of the superb harbor, which has determined Hong Kong’s history and character. Hong Kong prospered as a center of trade with China, expanding steadily until it fell to the Japanese in 1941. Although the rigors of a severe occupation set everything back, the Liberation in 1945 was the herald of an immediate and spectacular recovery in trade. People poured into the Colony, and this flow became a flood during 1949-50, when the Chinese National Government was defeated by the Communists. Three-quarters of a million people entered the Colony at that stage. Very soon two things affected commercial expansion. First, the Chinese government restricted Hong Kong’s exports to China, because it feared unsettled internal conditions, mounting inflation, and a weakness in its exchange position. Secondly, during the Korean War, the United Nations imposed an embargo on imports into China, the main source of Hong Kong’s livelihood. This was a crisis for Hong Kong; its China trade went overnight, and by this time it had over one million refugees on its hands. But something dramatic happened. Simply stated, it was this: Hong Kong switched from trading to manufacturing. It did it so so quickly that few people, even in Hong Kong, were aware at the time of exactly what was happening, and the rest of the world was not quickly convinced of Hong Kong’s transformation into a center of manufacturers. Its limited industry began to expand rapidly and, although more slowly, to diversify, and it owed much to the immigrants from Shanghai, who brought their capital, experience, and expertise with them. Today Hong Kong must be unique among so-called developing countries in the dependence of its economy on industrialization. No less than 40 percent of the labor force is engaged in the manufacturing industries; and of the products from these, Hong Kong exports 90 percent, and it does this despite the fact that its industry is exposed to the full competition of the industrially mature nations. The variety of its goods now ranges widely from the products of shipbuilding, through textiles and plastics, to air-conditioners, transistor radios, and cameras. More than 70 percent of its exports are either wholly or partly manufactured in Hong Kong. In recent years these domestic exports have been increasing at about 15 percent a year. America is the largest market, taking 25 percent of the value of Hong Kong’s exports; then follow the United Kingdom, Malaysia, West Germany, Japan, Canada, and Australia; but all countries come within the scope of its marketing. 1. The article gives the impression that A. English rule constituted an important factor in Hong Kong’s economic development. B. refugees from China were a liability to the financial status of Hong Kong. C. Hong Kong has taken a developmental course comparable to that of the new African nations. D. British forces used their military might imperialistically to acquire Hong Kong. 2. The economic stability of Hong Kong since World War II is primarily attributable to A. its shipbuilding activity. B. businessmen and workers from Shanghai who settled in Hong Kong. C. its political separation from China. D. a change in the type of business done in Hong Kong. 3. Hong Kong’s commerce was most adversely affected by the A. liberation. B. Japanese occupation. C. British administration. D. retreat of the Chinese National Government. 4. From the passage it would appear that A. the British succeeded in holding fast to Hong Kong through all events. B. the population of Hong Kong has grown steadily. C. the British were successful in their original plans for Hong Kong. D. Hong Kong is still the trading capital of the Orient. 5. In the decade following World War II, all of the following were stated or implied to be important factors in Hong Kong’s economic development ex-cept A. capital from Shanghai. B. experts from Shanghai. C. manufacturing machinery from Shanghai. D. the Korean War. 6. The author of this passage is most probably a(n) A. Hong Kong politician. B. American journalist. C. Oriental manufacturer. D. student of Far Eastern economic history. 7. If the trends cited in the passage continue, which of the following is the most likely? A. By the year 2000 the large majority of the Hong Kong work force will be engaged in manufacture for export. B. By the year 1995 the majority of Hong Kong’s exports will have become manufactured items. C. By the year 1990 Hong Kong’s population pressures will be absolutely unmanageable. D. By the year 1989 most Hong Kong business-men will be very well-off. Passage 47 Educators are seriously concerned about the high rate of dropouts among the doctor of philosophy candidates and the consequent loss of talent to a nation in need of Ph.D.’s. Some have placed the dropout loss as high as 50 percent. The extent of the loss was, however, largely a matter of expert guessing. Then a well-rounded study was published. It was based on 22,000 questionnaires sent to former graduate students who were enrolled in 24 universities between 1950 and 1954 and seemed to show many past fears to be groundless. The dropout rate was found to be 31 percent, and in most cases the dropouts, while not completing the Ph.D. requirements, went on to productive work. They are not only doing well financially, but, according to the report, are not far below the income levels of those who went on to complete their doctorates. The study, called “Attrition of Graduate Students at the Ph.D. Level in the Traditional Arts and Sciences,” was made at Michigan State University under a $60,000 grant from the United States Office of Education. It was conducted by Dr. Allan Tucker. Discussing the study, Dr. Tucker said the project was initiated “because of the concerns frequently expressed by graduate faculties and administrators that some of the individuals who dropped out of Ph.D. programs were capable of completing the requirements for the degree.” “Attrition at the Ph.D. level is also thought to be a waste of precious faculty time and a drain on university resources already being used to capacity. Some people expressed the opinion that the shortage of highly trained specialists and college teachers could be reduced by persuading the dropouts to return to graduate school to complete the Ph.D. program.” “The results of our research,” Dr. Tucker concluded, “did not support these opinions. The study found that: Lack of motivation was the principal reason for dropping out. Most dropouts went as far in their doctoral programs as was consistent with their levels of ability or their specialties. Most dropouts are now engaged in work consistent with their education and motivation. The dropout rate was highest in the humanities (50 percent) and lowest in the natural sciences (29 percent), and was higher in lower quality graduate schools. Nearly 75 percent of the dropouts said there was no academic reason for their decision, but those who mentioned academic reasons cited failure to pass qualifying examinations, uncompleted research, and failure to pass language exams. Among the single most important personal reasons identified by dropouts for non-completion of their Ph.D. programs, the study found “lack of finances” was marked by 19 percent. As an indication of how well the dropouts were doing, a chart showed that 2 percent of those whose studies were in the humanities were receiving $20,000 and more annually while none of the Ph.D.’s with that background reached this figure. The Ph.D.’s did extremely well in the $7,500 to $15,000 bracket with 78 percent at that level against 50 percent for the dropouts. This may also be an indication of the fact that top salaries in the academic fields, where Ph.D.’s tend to rise to the highest salaries, lag behind other fields. In the social sciences 5 percent of the Ph.D.’s reached the $20,000 plus figure as against 3 percent of the dropouts, but in the physical sciences they were neck-and-neck with 5 percent each. Academic institutions employed 90 percent of the humanities Ph.D.’s as against 57 percent of the humanities dropouts. Business and industry employed 47 percent of the physical science Ph.D.’s and 38 percent of the physical science dropouts. Government agencies took 16 percent of the social science Ph.D.’s and 32 percent of the social science dropouts. As to the possibility of getting dropouts back on campus, the outlook was glum. “The main conditions which would have to prevail for at least 25 percent of the dropouts who might consider returning to graduate school would be to guarantee that they would retain their present level of income and in some cases their present job.” 1. After reading the passage it could be suggested that A. the majority of humanities doctoral students received inadequate academic preparation for graduate studies. B. the majority of engineering students are less well-read than humanities students in their respective areas. C. undergraduate students are poorly motivated. D. doctoral candidates in the natural sciences are better prepared for their studies than those in other fields. 2. After reading the article, one would refrain from concluding that A. colleges and universities employ a substantial number of Ph.D. dropouts. B. Ph.D.’s are not earning what they deserve in non-academic positions. C. the study was conducted efficiently and is probably valid. D. optimism reigns in regard to getting Ph.D. dropouts to return to their pursuit of the degree. 3. The article states that A. not having sufficient funds to continue accounts for more. Ph.D. dropouts than all the other reasons combined. B. in fields such as English, philosophy, and the arts, the dropouts are doing better in the highest salary brackets than the Ph.D.’s. C. at the $10,000 earning level, there is a higher percentage of dropouts than the percentage of Ph.D.’s. D. in physics, geology, and chemistry, the Ph.D.’s are twice as numerous in the higher salary brackets than the dropouts. 4. It would be fair to infer that Dr. Tucker agrees with the statement that A. there are students admitted to doctoral programs who should be content not to finish them. B. a well-motivated student will never have to drop out of a doctoral program. C. substantial scholarship aid is available to most dropouts who wish to return to school. D. dropping out of a doctoral program reflects badly on all concerned. 5. Research has shown that A. all dropouts are substantially below Ph.D.’s in financial attainment. B. the incentive factor is a minor one in regard to pursuing Ph.D. studies. C. the Ph.D. candidate is likely to change his field of specialization if he drops out. D. about one-third of those who start Ph.D. work do not complete the work to earn the degree. 6. Dr. Tucker based his distinction between higher and lower quality graduate schools on A. degrees and publications of the faculty. B. estimates made by deans of graduate schools. C. later attainments of the students. D. a basis not mentioned in the passage. 7. What may we infer was Dr. Tucker’s reasoning in stating that the dropouts were not wasting precious faculty time and draining away university resources? A. The dropouts were self-selected by lack of motivation. B. The rate was highest in the poorer schools. C. Most dropouts were using their education in their work. D. There wasn’t enough money for many of the dropouts to continue. Passage 48 The nucleus of a town’s population is the local businessmen, whose interests constitute the municipal policy and control its municipal administration. These local businessmen are such as the local bankers, merchants of many kinds and degrees, real estate promoters, local lawyers, local clergymen, and so forth. The businessmen, who take up the local traffic in merchandising, litigation, church enterprise and the like, commonly begin with some share in the real estate speculation. This affords a common bond and a common ground of pecuniary interest, which commonly masquerades under the name of local patriotism, public spirit, civic pride, and the like. This pretense of public spirit is so consistently maintained that most of these men come presently to believe in their own professions on that head. Pecuniary interest in local land values involves an interest in the continued growth of the town. Hence any creditable misrepresentation of the town’s volume of business traffic, population, tributary farming community, or natural resources, is rated as serviceable to the common good. And any member of this business-like community will be rated as a meritorious citizen in proportion as he is serviceable to this joint pecuniary interest of these “influential citizens.” 1. The tone of the paragraph is A. bitter. B. didactic. C. complaining. D. satirical. 2. The foundation for the “influential citizens”’ interest in their community is A. their control of the municipal administration. B. their interests in trade and merchandising. C. their natural feeling of civic pride. D. ownership of land for speculation. 3. The “influential citizens”’ type of civic pride may be compared with the patriotism of believers in A. dollar diplomacy. B. racial superiority. C. laissez faire. D. a high tariff. 4. The important men in the town A. are consciously insincere in their local patriotism. B. are drawn together for political reasons. C. do not scruple to give their community a false boost. D. regard strict economy as a necessary virtue. should be a disinterested passion untinged by commercial motives. is found only among the poorer classes. is usually found in urban society. grows out of a combination of the motives of self interest and altruism. are entirely hypocritical in their conception of their motives. are blinded to facts by their patriotic spirit. have deceived themselves into thinking they are altruistic. look upon the welfare of their community as of paramount importance. Preparation for MCAT Verbal Reasoning 5. The writer considers that the influential men of the town A. B. C. D. 6. Probably the author’s own view of patriotism is that it A. B. C. D. Passage 49 Foods are overwhelmingly the most advertised group of all consumer products in the United States. Food products lead in expenditures for network and spot television advertisements, discount coupons, trading stamps, contests, and other forms of premium advertising. In other media - newspapers, magazines, newspaper supplements, billboards, and radio - food advertising expenditures rank near the top. Food manufacturers spend more on advertising than any other manufacturing group, and the nation’s grocery stores rank first among all retailers. Throughout the 1970’s, highly processed foods have accounted for the bulk of total advertising. Almost all coupons, electronic advertising, national printed media advertising, consumer premiums (other than trading stamps) as well as most push promotion come from processed and packaged food products. In 1978, breakfast cereals, soft drinks, candy and other desserts, oils and salad dressings, coffee, and prepared foods accounted for only an estimated 20 percent of the consumer food dollar. Yet these items accounted for about one-half of all media advertising. By contrast, highly perishable foods such as unprocessed meats, poultry, fish and eggs, fruits and vegetables, and dairy products accounted for over half of the consumer food-at-home dollar. Yet these products accounted for less than 8 percent of national media advertising in 1978, and virtually no discount coupons. These products tend to be most heavily advertised by the retail sector in local newspapers, where they account for an estimated 40 percent of retail grocery newspaper ads. When measured against total food-at-home expenditures, total measured food advertising accounts for between 3 to 3.7 cents out of every dollar spent on food in the nation’s grocery stores. A little less than one cent of this amount is accounted for by electronic advertising (mostly television) while incentives account for 0.6 cents. The printed media accounts for 0.5 cents and about one-third of one cent is comprised of discount coupon redemptions. The estimate for the cost of push promotion ranges from 0.7 to 1.4 cents. This range is necessary because of the difficulty in separating non-promotional aspects of direct selling - transportation, technical, and other related services. Against this gross consumer cost must be weighed the joint products or services provided by advertising. In the case of electronic advertising, the consumer who views commercial television receives entertainment, while readers of magazines and newspapers receive reduced prices on these publications. The consumer pays directly for some premiums, but also receives non-food merchandise as an incentive to purchase the product. The “benefits” must, therefore, be subtracted from the gross cost to the consumer to assess the net cost of advertising fully. Also significant are the impacts of advertising on food demand, nutrition, and competition among food manufacturers. The bulk of manufacturers’ advertising is concentrated on a small portion of consumer food products. Has advertising changed the consumption of these highly processed products relative to more perishable foods such as meats, produce, and dairy products? Has the nutritional content of U.S. food consumption been influenced by food advertising? Has competition among manufacturers and retailers been enhanced or weakened by advertising? These are important questions and warrant continued research. 1. The author’s attitude toward advertising can be characterized as A. admiring. B. condemning. C. uncertain. D. inquisitive. 2. As used in the passage, the term “push promotion” means A. coupon redemption. B. retail advertising. C. advertising in trade journals. D. direct selling. 3. The author implies that advertising costs A. are greater for restaurants than for at-home foods. B. should be discounted by the benefits of advertising to the consumer. C. are much higher in the United States than anywhere else in the world. D. for prepared foods are considerably higher than for natural foods for all media. 4. The purpose of the article is to A. warn about rising food advertising costs. B. let experts see how overextended food advertising has become. C. describe the costs of food advertising and the issues yet to be understood about its effects. D. congratulate the food industry on its effective advertising. 5. All of the following are stated or implied to be important topics for further research except A. effects of advertising on food and nutrient consumption patterns. B. effects of advertising on food manufacturer competitive patterns. C. effects of advertising on meat consumption patterns. D. effects of advertising on out-of-home eating patterns. 6. According to the passage, all of the following are definitely false except A. total food advertisements in newspapers cost more than those on television. B. less money is spent advertising food than automobiles. C. more of the food advertising budget is spent on push promotion than television ads. D. less money is spent on food store advertising than on clothing store ads. 7. If it were discovered that the nutritional content of the U.S. food supply were degraded by the adver-tising of highly processed foods, and such advertis-ing were totally banned, which of the following would be a possible result of the ban that could be inferred from the passage? A. The subscription costs of publications might rise. B. The cost of cable television might decrease. C. The cost of free television might rise. D. Fewer consumers would watch certain tele-vision shows. Passage 50 Negative thinking and lack of confidence in oneself or in the pupils are probably the greatest hindrances to inspirational teaching. Confronted with a new idea, one teacher will exclaim: “Oh, my children couldn’t do that! They’re too young.” Another will mutter, “If I tried that stunt, the whole class would be in an uproar.” Such are the self-justifications for mediocrity. Here and there it is good to see a teacher take a bold step away from the humdrum approach. For example, Natalie Robinson Cole was given a class of fourth-year pupils who could hardly speak English. Yet in her book, “The Arts in the Classroom,” she describes how she tried clay work, creative writing, interpretive dancing, and many other exciting activities with them. Did her control of the class suffer? Were the results poor? Was morale adversely affected? The answer is “no” on all three counts. But someone may point out that what Mrs. Cole did on the fourth-grade could not be done in the primary grades. Wrong again! The young child is more malleable than his older brother. Furthermore, his radiant heritage of originality has not been enveloped in clouds of self-consciousness. Given the proper encouragement, he will paint an interesting design on the easel, contribute a sparkling expression to the “class poem” as it takes shape on the blackboard, make a puppet speak his innermost thoughts, and react with sensitivity in scores of other ways. All teachers on all grade levels need to think positively and act confidently. Of course, any departure from the commonplace must be buttressed by careful preparation, firm handling of the situation, and consistent attention to routines. Since these assets are within the reach of all teachers there should be no excuse for not putting some imagination into their work. 1. The central idea of the above passage is best conveyed by the A. first sentence in the first paragraph. B. last sentence in the first paragraph. C. first sentence in the second paragraph. D. last sentence in the passage. 2. If the concepts of this passage were to be expanded into a book, the title that would be most suitable is A. The Arts in the Classroom. B. The Power of Positive Thinking. C. The Hidden Persuaders. D. Kids Say the Darndest Things. negative thinking. teachers’ underestimation of pupils’ ability or stability. teachers’ failure to broaden themselves culturally. teachers’ lack of self-assurance. 3. Of the following reasons for uninspired teaching, the one which is not given explicitly in the passage is A. B. C. D. 4. From reading the passage one can gather that Natalie R. Cole A. teaches in New York City. B. has been married. C. is an expert in art. D. teaches in the primary grades. 5. An activity for children in the primary grades which is not mentioned in the passage is A. creative expression. B. art work. C. puppetry. D. constructing with blocks. 6. A basic asset of the inspirational teacher not mentioned in the passage is A. a pleasant, outgoing personality. B. a firm hand. C. a thorough, careful plan. D. acting confidently.