Ch08 Thinking Language and Intelligence

Chapter 8 Thinking, Language and Intelligence -13906512890500 OUTLINE (Survey & Question) This outline is intended to help you survey the chapter. As you read through the various sections, write down any questions or comments that come to mind in the space provided. This is a valuable part of active learning and the SQ4R method. It not only makes your reading time more enjoyable and active, but it also increases retention and understanding of the material. TOPIC NOTES I. THINKING A. The Thinking Brain B. Cognitive Building Blocks C. Solving Problems Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Solving Problems in College Life D. Creativity II. LANGUAGE A. Characteristics of Language Language and Thought Animals and Language Research Highlight: Language and the Brain III. INTELLIGENCE A. The Nature of Intelligence B. Test Construction C. Assessing Intelligence Explaining Differences in Intelligence Gender and Cultural Diversity: The Bell Curve, Stereotype Threat, and IQ Tests 895352857500 Core and Expanded LEARNING OBJECTIVES (Read, Recite & wRite) While reading the chapter, stop periodically and recite (or repeat in your own words) the answers to the following learning objectives. It will also help your retention if you write your answer in the space provided. (Page numbers refer to the text Psychology in Action, 6th Ed.) Core Learning Objectives These objectives are found at the beginning of each chapter of Psychology in Action (6th ed.). 1. What is thinking and how does the brain do it? 2. What are the building blocks of thought? 3. How do we solve problems? 4. What is creativity and how is it measured? 5. What is language and how is it related to thinking? 6. What is intelligence and how is it measured? 7. How do biology, genetics, and the environment influence intelligence? Expanded Learning Objectives These objectives offer more detail and a more intensive way to study the chapter. Upon completion of CHAPTER 8, the student will be able to: Define cognition and thinking, and describe the use of mental imaging in cognition (pp. 278-280). Define concepts, and describe the three major methods for concept formation (pp. 280-282). List and describe the three stages of problem-solving, including an explanation of the types of thinking that occur in each stage (pp. 283-284). List and describe the three major barriers to problem-solving; discuss the role of incubation in overcoming these barriers (pp. 284-287). Define creativity, and discuss how convergent and divergent thinking, and the investment theory of creativity are related to the creative process (pp. 288-289). Describe how human language differs from patterns of communication used by non-humans (pp. 290-291). Define and provide an example of each of the following building blocks of language: phonemes, morphemes, grammar, syntax, and semantics; describe Chomsky’s surface and deep structures of language (pp. 291-292). Describe the interaction between language and thought (pp. 292-293). Describe the research on teaching language to animals, and summarize each side of the “animal language” debate (pp. 293-295). Describe the research on language and the brain (p. 295). Explain why intelligence is difficult to define, and state the text’s definition; differentiate between Cattell’s fluid and crystallized intelligence (pp. 296-297). Describe Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence (pp. 299-301). Define standardization, reliability, and validity, and explain why each is important for intelligence testing (pp. 301-302). Explain how an intelligence quotient (IQ) is determined and differentiate between the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Wechsler intelligent tests; describe the extremes of mental retardation and mental giftedness (pp. 302-307). Explain how biology, genetics, and the environment impact intelligence (pp. 307-309). 16. Describe what is known about the influence of gender and culture on intelligence (pp. 310-312). -13906515938500 KEY TERMS (Review) The review step in the SQ4R method is very important to your performance on quizzes and exams. Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to define the following terms. Algorithm: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Cognition: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Concept: _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Confirmation Bias: ______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Convergent Thinking: ____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Creativity: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Crystallized Intelligence: __________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Divergent Thinking: ______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Fluid Intelligence: _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Functional Fixedness: ____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Grammar: ______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Heuristics: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Incubation: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Intelligence: ____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Intelligence Quotient (IQ): _________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Mental Images: __________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Mental Set: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Morpheme: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Phoneme: ______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Prototype: ______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Reliability: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Semantics: _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Standardization: _________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Stereotype Threat: _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Syntax: ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ Validity: _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ -1390653429000 ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES (Recite) The recite step in the SQ4R method requires you to be an ACTIVE learner. By completing the following exercises, you will test and improve your mastery of the chapter material, which will also improve your performance on quizzes and exams. Answers to some exercises appear at the end of this study guide chapter. ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISE I The text describes two major ways to generate hypotheses during the production stage of problem solving—algorithms and heuristics. To improve your algorithm strategy, try the following: There are 1025 tennis players participating in a single’s elimination tournament. How many matches must be played before there is one winner and 1024 losers? To work on your skill in “working backwards” (a type of heuristic), try this problem: While three watchmen were guarding an orchard, a thief crept in and stole some apples. During his escape, he met the three watchmen one after the other. In exchange for his freedom, he gave each one-half of the apples he had at the time, plus an extra two. After he had shared his apples with each of the three watchmen, he had one left for himself. How many apples had he stolen originally? Answers can be found at the end of this study guide chapter. ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISE II Metacognition (A Cognitive Skill) Metacognition, also known as reflective or recursive thinking, involves a review and analysis of your own mental processes-- thinking about your own thinking. Below is a problem that involves this type of active learning. Take a few minutes and work on it. Problem There is a bird, Tweety, that likes to perch on the roof of Casey Jones, a locomotive that travels the 200-mile route from Cucamonga to Kalamazoo. As Casey Jones pulls out from Cucamonga, the bird takes to the air and flies to Kalamazoo, the train's destination. Because the train travels at only 50 mph whereas the bird travels at 100 mph, Tweety reaches Kalamazoo before the train and finds that it has nowhere to perch. So the bird flies back to the train and finds it still moving, whereupon Tweety flies back to Kalamazoo, then back to the train, and so on until Casey Jones finally arrives in Kalamazoo, where the bird finally rests on the locomotive's roof. How far has the bird flown? This exercise helps apply what you've learned in your textbook about steps involved problem solving. To review these steps, fill in the name of the step, then describe the processes you used during each step in solving the above problem. Make sure you include the following terms, if applicable: algorithm creating subgoals evaluation goal heuristics hypothesis incubation preparation production Step 1: _______________ Procedure: _______________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Step 2: _______________ Procedure: _______________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Step 3: _______________ Procedure: _______________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ -13906513843000 CHAPTER OVERVIEW (Review) The following CHAPTER OVERVIEW provides a narrative overview of the main topics covered in the chapter. Like the Visual Summary found at the end of each chapter in the text, this narrative summary provides a final opportunity to review chapter material. I. The Thinking Brain and Cognitive Building Blocks Cognition, or thinking, is defined as mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge. Thought processes are distributed throughout the brain via neural networks. Almost the entire cerebral cortex is activated when thinking involves forming mental representations. During problem solving and decision-making, our thoughts are localized for special processing within the frontal lobes. The prefrontal cortex links to other areas of the brain to synthesize information from several senses. It is also connected to the limbic system. Without connecting thoughts to feelings, solving problems and making decisions would be difficult. The three basic building blocks of cognition are mental images, concepts, and language. Mental images are mental representations of a sensory experience, including visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory, or tactile elements. Concepts are mental categories that groups objects, events, activities, or ideas that share similar characteristics. (Language is discussed in a later section.) There are three ways we learn concepts: 1) Artificial concepts are formed by logical, specific rules or characteristics. 2) Natural concepts are formed by experience in everyday life. When we are confronted with a new item, we compare it with the prototype (most typical) of that concept. 3) Concepts are generally organized into hierarchies. We most frequently use the middle, basic-level concepts, when first learning material. II. Solving Problems Problem solving entails three steps: preparation, production, and evaluation. During the preparation stage, we identify given facts, separate relevant from irrelevant facts, and define the ultimate goal. During the production stage, we generate possible situations, called hypotheses. We typically generate hypotheses by using algorithms and heuristics. Algorithms, as problem solving strategies, are guaranteed to lead to a solution eventually, but they are not practical in many situations. Heuristics, or simplified “rules of thumb” that are based on experience, are much faster but do not guarantee a solution. Three common heuristics are means-end analysis, working backward, and creating subgoals. The evaluation step in problem solving involves judging the hypotheses generated during step two (production stage) against the criteria established in step one (preparation stage), Three major barriers to successful problem solving are mental sets, functional fixedness, and confirmation bias. Some problems require a period of incubation, or time out, before a solution is apparent. III. Creativity Creativity is the generation of ideas that are original, novel, and useful. Creative thinking involves fluency, flexibility, and originality. Divergent thinking, trying to generate as many solutions as possible, is a special type of thinking involved in creativity. In contrast, convergent thinking, or conventional thinking, works toward a single solution to a problem, and is not related to creativity. The investment theory of creativity proposes that creative people "buy low" by pursuing promising but unpopular ideas and "sell high" by developing the ideas until they are widely accepted. It also proposes that creativity depends on six specific resources: intellectual ability, knowledge, thinking style, personality, motivation, and environment. IV. Language Human language is a creative form of communication consisting of symbols put together according to a set of rules. The three building blocks of language are phonemes, morphemes, and grammar. Phonemes are the basic speech sounds; they are combined to form morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of language. Phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases are put together by rules of grammar (syntax and semantics). Syntax refers to the grammatical rules for ordering words in sentences; semantics refers to meaning in language. Noam Chomsky believes that humans are born with an ability to put words together in a meaningful way. Also, according to Chomsky, every sentence has both a surface structure (the words themselves) and a deep structure (the actual meaning). According to Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis, language shapes thought. Generally, Whorf’s hypothesis is not supported. However, our choice of vocabulary can influence our mental imagery and social perceptions. The most successful animal language studies have been done with apes using American Sign Language. Dolphins have also been taught to comprehend sentences that vary in syntax and meaning. Some psychologists believe that animals can truly learn human language, but others suggest that the animals are merely responding to rewards. V. The Nature of Intelligence and Test Construction Today, intelligence is commonly defined as the general capacity to profit from experience, to acquire knowledge, and adapt to changes in the environment. However, there are several theorists who have defined it differently: Spearman viewed intelligence as “g,” a general intelligence; Thurstone saw it as seven distinct mental abilities; Guilford believed it was composed of 120 or more separate abilities; and Cattell viewed it as two types of “g,” which he called fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. In addition to these early theorists, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences identifies eight types of intelligence. He believes that both teaching and assessing should take into account people's learning styles and cognitive strengths. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence emphasizes the thinking process rather than the end product (the answer). The Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence identifies three aspects of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical intelligences. For any test to be useful, it must be standardized, reliable, and valid. Standardization refers to (a) giving a test to a large number of people in order to determine norms and (b) using identical procedures in administering a test so that everyone takes the test under exactly the same testing conditions. Reliability refers to the stability of test scores over time. Validity refers to how well the test measures what it is intended to measure. VI. Assessing Intelligence/ Explaining Differences in Intelligence Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests do not, and are not intended to, measure overall intelligence. Rather, they are designed to measure verbal and quantitative abilities needed for school success. Several individual IQ tests are in common use. The Stanford-Binet measures primarily verbal abilities of children ages 3 to 16. The Wechsler tests, consisting of three separate tests for three distinct age levels, measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities. People with IQs of 70 and below are identified as mentally retarded, whereas people with IQs of 140 and above are identified as gifted. Most neuroscientists believe that all mental activity results from neural activity in the brain. Their research on intelligence has focused on three major questions: 1) Does a bigger brain mean greater intelligence? (Answer: “not necessarily.”) 2) Is a faster brain more intelligent? (Answer: “ a qualified yes.” And 3) Does a smart brain work harder? (Answer: “No, the smarter brain is more efficient.”) According to the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, heredity and environment appear to be important, inseparable factors in intellectual development. Heredity equips each of us with innate capacities, but environment significantly influences whether an individual will reach full potential. SELF-TESTS (Review & wRite) -139065-20320000 Completing the following SELF-TESTS will provide immediate feedback on how well you have mastered the material. In the crossword puzzle and fill-in exercises, write the appropriate word or words in the blank spaces. The matching exercise requires you to match the terms in one column to their correct definitions in the other. For the multiple-choice questions in Practice Tests I and II, circle or underline the correct answer. When you are unsure of any answer, be sure to highlight or specially mark the item and then go back to the text for further review. Correct answers are provided at the end of this study guide chapter. Crossword Puzzle for Chapter 8 ACROSS 1 Problem-solving strategies, or "rules of thumb," used as shortcuts to complex solutions, which generally, but not always, lead to a solution. 5 Thinking that produces many alternatives or ideas; a major element of creativity (e.g., finding as many uses as possible for a paper clip). 6 The capacity for acquiring new knowledge and solving new problems that is at least partially determined by biological and genetic factors. 7 A typical, highly representative example that serves as a model on which other examples are based or judged (e.g., baseball is a prototype of the concept of sports.) 9 The rules of a language that specify how phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases should be combined to meaningfully express thoughts. 12 The mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge. 14 The grammatical rules that specify in what order the words and phrases should be arranged in a sentence in order to convey meaning. 16 The smallest meaningful unit of language, formed from a combination of phonemes. 18 A period of time during which active searching for a problem's solution is set aside; this is sometimes necessary for a successful solution of the problem. 20 The mind's representation of a sensory experience, including visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory, or tactile elements (e.g., visualizing a train and hearing its whistle). 21 A measure of the consistency and stability of test scores when the test is readministered. 22 A score on a test that is intended to measure verbal and quantitative abilities. 23 A psychological predicament in which a person experiences doubt about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group's abilities. DOWN 2 Conventional thinking; thinking directed toward a single correct answer (e.g., standard academic tests generally require convergent thinking). 3 A barrier to problem solving that occurs when people are unable to recognize novel uses for an object because they are so familiar with its common use. 4 A mental category that groups objects, events, activities, or ideas that share similar characteristics. 8 The most basic unit of speech; an individual speech sound. 10 A problem-solving strategy that guarantees a solution if correctly applied; it involves trying out all possible solutions to a problem in a systematic manner. 11 The process of establishing the norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test. 12 The tendency to seek out and pay attention to information that confirms existing positions or beliefs, while at the same time ignoring or not considering contradictory information. 13 The general capacity to profit from experience, to acquire knowledge, and adapt to changes in the environment. 14 Meaning or the study of meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences. 15 The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. 17 A mental barrier to problem solving that occurs when people apply only methods that have worked in the past rather than trying innovative ones. 19 The generation of ideas that are original, novel, and useful. FILL-IN EXERCISES The mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge is known as ________ (p. 278). For most Westerners baseball is a __________ of the concept of sports (p. 280). To solve a problem there are three major stages: ________, __________, and ________ (pp. 283-284). The three most common barriers to effective problem solving are _________, __________, __________ (p. 284). Creativity is associated with _________ thinking, which is the opposite of __________ thinking (p. 288). The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a _______ (p. 291). The general capacity to profit from experience, to acquire knowledge, and adapt to changes in the environment _______ (p. 296). As we age our __________ intelligence tends to increase, whereas our __________ intelligence gradually decreses (p. 297). A ten-year-old child with a mental age of seven would have an IQ score of ______ (p. 303). Some psychologists prefer the Wechsler to the Stanford-Binet intelligence test because the Wechsler test gives both a _____ and a _______ score (p. 304). MATCHING EXERCISES Column A Column B Syntax 1. ____ Mental representation of a sensory experience. Convergent Thinking 2. ____ Leads to many solutions. Stanford-Binet 3. ____ Meaning in language. Evaluation 4. ____ Accumulation of knowledge over the life span. Mental Images 5. ____ Order of words in a sentence. Crystallized Intelligence 6. ____ Speed of information processing. Wechsler 7. ____ Measures both verbal and nonverbal abilities. Fluid Intelligence 8. ____ Primarily measures verbal abilities. Divergent Thinking 9. ____ Evaluating hypothesis for goal attainment. Semantics 10. ____ Leads to a single solution. PRACTICE TEST I A mental _____ is used to categorize things that share similar characteristics. program attribute concept image When building concepts, we use ______ (p. 280). artificial concepts natural concepts hierarchies all of these options Preparation, production, and evaluation are the three major steps in _____. problem solving cognition thinking artificial intelligence What are the two major methods used in generating hypotheses for solving problems? factor analysis and analysis of variance insight and meditation insight and deduction algorithms and heuristics Which of the following is an algorithm? a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule dream analysis 3 X 10 is 10 + 10 + 10 asking the smartest person in the class _____ is the failure to solve a problem because of an inability to see novel uses for a familiar object. Problem-solving set Functional fixedness Heuristics Incubation When politicians accept opinion polls that support them and ignore those that don’t, this is an example of _____. fluid intelligence mental set confirmation bias originality, fluency, experience According to J. P. Guilford, which of the following are the three abilities associated with creativity? fluency, vocabulary, experience fluency, flexibility, originality flexibility, heuristics, algorithms originality, fluency, experience According to _____, creative people are willing to “buy low and sell high.” Guilford Sternberg investment theory connectionism theory The basic building blocks of language are called _____. verbalization morphemes phonemes deep structure Benjamin Whorf proposed that _____. language is not natural and must be learned the structure of language can influence people's thoughts American Sign Language is not a natural language language development is genetically predetermined Knowledge and skills gained through experience and education is known as _____ intelligence. crystallized fluid general specific Howard Gardner proposed a theory of _____. language development fluid and crystallized intelligence culture specificity intelligence multiple intelligences Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence includes analytic intelligence, creative intelligence, and _____. fluid intelligence past and present knowledge to ongoing problems fluid and crystallized knowledge to problem-solving practical intelligence If a test gives you the same score each time you take the test, that test would be _____. reliable valid standardized useless Validity refers to the ability of a test to _____. return the same score on separate administrations of the test measure what it is designed to measure avoid discrimination between different cultural groups give a standard deviation of scores Most IQ tests are designed to _____. measure general intelligence measure achievement predict academic grades predict crystallized intelligence The first IQ test to be widely used in the United States was the _____? Stanford-Binet SAT ACT AFQT An IQ score of _____ is the cutoff for mental retardation. 50 70 80 none of these options, this term is no longer being used Which of the following persons would be most likely to have similar IQ test scores? identical twins raised apart identical twins raised together fraternal twins raised apart brothers and sisters from the same parents PRACTICE TEST II 1. A mental image is defined as a _____. a. delusion b. illusion c. hallucination d. mental representation of a sensory experience 2. A _____ is a model or best example of items belonging to a particular category. a. heuristic b. attribute c. phoneme d. prototype 3. As you work a problem, you move from the __________ state to the __________ state. a. initial; final b. given; goal c. query; response d. evaluation; product 4. The generation of possible solutions, or hypotheses, during the _____ stage(s) of problem solving. a. preparation b. production c. preparation and production d. evaluation 5. _____ is (are) a simple rule of thumb, or an educated guess, that generally lead to a solution. a. Heuristics b. Mnemonic devices c. Algorithms d. all of these options 6. _____ is the final stage in problem solving. a. Implementation b. Hypothesis testing c. Evaluation d. None of these options 7. With regard to problem solving, incubation is ____. a. the generation of possible solutions b. a period of time when active work on the problem is set aside c. an evaluation of the results of the applied solution d. wasted time 8. The practice of “sleeping on a problem” one has been unable to solve is not a bad idea because it allows the process of ________ to occur. a. incubation b. convergence c. divergence d. set disintegration 9. _____ is the generation of ideas that are original, novel and useful. a. Fluid intelligence b. Multiple intelligence c. Creativity d. Insight 10. Which rule of English is violated by this sentence? The girl Anne is. a. deep structure b. phonemic structure c. semantics d. syntax 11. Chomsky is to deep structure as Freud is to _____. a. surface structure b. manifest content c. consciousness d. latent content 12. “A screaming bouquet of flowers” is an example of the improper use of _____. a. pragmatics b. schematics c. semantics d. morphemes 13. Spearman believed that intelligence was composed of a general cognitive ability, which he called _____. a. “g” b. IQ c. GCA d. “I” 14. Cattell proposed that there were two types of intelligence: one that referred to new knowledge and one that referred to accumulated knowledge. He called these _____. a. knowledge and wisdom b. novel and fixed knowledge c. fluid and crystallized intelligence d. working and stored information 15. Linguistic, logical, spatial, musical, and interpersonal are five of Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences. The other three include _____. a. sensory, perceptual, and memory b. emotional, affective, and limbic c. vestibular, auditory, and parietal d. kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and naturalistic 16. _____ is (are) the term used for developing specific procedures for administering and scoring a test, and establishing norms for the test scores in a given population. a. Reliability procedures b. Validity testing c. Specification d. Standardization 17. The first successful intelligence test was developed in_____ by _____. a. France; Terman b. France; Binet c. the United States; Terman d. the United States; Binet 18. Some psychologists prefer the Wechsler scales to the Stanford-Binet because _____. a. the Wechsler scales are revised periodically b. the Wechsler scales do not take as long to administer c. American children were used to standardize the Wechsler scales d. the Wechsler scales have both a verbal scale and a performance scale 19. Which of the following is true regarding the relationship between IQ scores and ethnicity. a. Members of every ethnic group have scores at all levels of the IQ scale. b. The bell curve applies only to Caucasian test-takers. c. Overall, the averages for all ethnic groups fall at the same level on the IQ scale. d. Americans as a group consistently average higher IQ scores than other ethnic groups. 20. _____ may significantly depress the test performance of people in some stereotyped groups. a. Confirmation bias b. The bell curve c. Stereotype threats d. Functional fixedness -1390658636000 ANSWERS The following answers to active learning exercises, fill-ins, matching exercises, and practice tests 1 and 2 provide immediate feedback on your mastery of the material. Try not to simply memorize the answers. When you are unsure of your “guess” or make an error, be sure to go back to the textbook and carefully review. This will greatly improve your scores on classroom exams and quizzes. Crossword Puzzle for Chapter 8 ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISE I Algorithm answer 2 players = 1 match, 3 players = 2 matches, 4 players = 5 matches, and so on. The number of required matches is one less than the number of players, so it will take 1024 matches to select a winner. Working backward—a heuristic answer The thief had one apple after sharing with the third watchman. After sharing with the second watchman, he had 6 apples (1/2 x 2 = 1, X =6). After sharing with the first watchman, he had 16 (1/2 x-2 = 16, x = 36). The thief stole 36 apples. FILL-IN EXERCISES 1. cognition; 2. prototype; 3. preparation, production, and evaluation; 4. mental sets, functional fixedness, and confirmation bias; 5. divergent, convergent; 6. morpheme; 7. intelligence; 8. crystallized, fluid; 9. 70; 10. verbal, performance. MATCHING EXERCISES a. 5, b. 10, c. 8, d. 9, e. 1, f. 4, g. 7, h. 6, i. 2, j. 3. PRACTICE TEST I 1. c (p. 280) 11. b (p. 293) 2. d (p. 280) 12. a (p. 297) 3. a (pp. 283,284) 13. d (p. 299) 4. d (p. 283) 14. d (p. 300) 5. c (p. 283) 15. a (p. 301) 6. b (p. 285) 16. b (p. 301) 7. c (p. 286) 17. c (p. 302) 8. b (p. 288) 18. a (p. 303) 9. c (p. 289) 19. b (p. 305) 10.c (p. 291) 20. b (p.308) PRACTICE TEST II 1. d (p. 279) 11. d (p. 292) 2. d (p. 280) 12. c (p. 292) 3. b (p. 283) 13. a (p. 297) 4. b (p. 283) 14. c (p. 297) 5. a (p. 283) 15. d (p. 299) 6. c (p. 284) 16. d (p. 301) 7. b (p. 287) 17. b (p. 303) 8. a (p. 287) 18. d (p. 304) 9. c (p. 288) 19. a (p. 310) 10.d (p. 291) 20. c (p. 311)