The Science of Social Psychology

THINK Social Psychology The Science of Social Psychology Multiple Choice Questions The tendency to view events that have already occurred in the past as more predictable than they were before they took place is defined as _____________. Hindsight bias Observational bias The false consensus effect Retrospection Answer: a You have reservations about taking an advanced chemistry class but you decide to register anyway. After you receive a D on your first exam you think to yourself, “I knew this class was going to be too hard! I never should have signed up.” Your belief that you knew the outcome all along refers to what phenomenon? Regret The false uniqueness effect Hindsight bias The false consensus effect Answer: c Which adage best illustrates the concept of hindsight bias? The early bird gets the worm. Hindsight is 20/20. Birds of a feather flock together. You can’t teach an old dog new tricks. Answer: b You routinely stop at a nearby restaurant every Friday to pick-up your favorite tuna-melt sandwich. During your latest visit, you are shocked to learn that the sandwich you love so much has been taken off the menu because it is not very popular among customers. Your surprise can best be explained by _____________? The ‘I knew it all along’ phenomenon Hindsight bias The false uniqueness effect The false consensus effect Answer: d Daniel cheated on his college history exam and believes that, like himself, almost every student cheats on an exam at least once or twice. Assuming he is incorrect, Daniel’s tendency to overestimate the extent to which others cheat is known as _______________. Hindsight bias The false consensus effect The ‘I knew it all along’ phenomenon The overestimation effect Answer: b According to you your textbook, what is considered the first step in the research process? Creating a research question Creating a hypothesis Defining your variables Colleting the data for your study Answer: a A _____________ is a general framework for understanding a concept that allows us to describe, predict, and explain events. research question hypothesis variable theory Answer: d Page ref: 7 Which of the following would NOT represent a formal step in the research process? Searching personal blogs and websites like Wikipedia for information on your topic Gathering past research and background information on a topic Developing a research question Developing a hypothesis Answer: a Page ref: 7-8 Prior to beginning your search for literature on your research topic, you should do which of the following? Search Wikipedia for preliminary information on your topic. Identify key words relevant to your topic. Search personal blogs to familiarize yourself with the topic. Collect the data for your study. Answer: b Page ref: 7 Gender and level of self-esteem can be considered examples of ______________ hypotheses research questions theories variables Answer: d Page ref: 8 When experts in a field review and comment on other colleagues’ work, this is known as _______________. Expert review Scientific review Search and review Peer review Answer: d Page ref: 8 A researcher formed the following hypothesis: “Good children receive more positive attention from their parents than bad children”. The main problem with this hypothesis is: The hypothesis is too specific. The hypothesis does not define the sample of interest. ‘Good children’ and ‘bad children’ are too vague and abstract. There is no problem with the hypothesis. Answer: c Page ref: 8 Which of the following hypotheses is currently stated in the least testable form? Good parenting leads to better behaved children Watching more than 5 hours of television a day is related to weight gain. Teenagers who join gangs are more likely to have criminal records. Individuals in relationships will report higher life satisfaction. Answer: a Page ref: 8 Difficult You hypothesize that lack of sleep impairs cognitive ability. In order to test your hypothesis, you will have to determine how to define and measure ‘lack of sleep’ and ‘cognitive ability’. This is another way of saying that you will have to: develop a research question develop a theory develop a hypothesis create an operational definition Answer: d Page ref: 8 Difficult The measurement of a variable is considered valid when: it produces the same result over and over again it measures what it is supposed to measure it can be supported as true none of the above Answer: b Page ref: 8 Consistent measurement refers to ______________. validity reliability replication sampling Answer: b Page ref: 8 Luri decides to conduct a study to examine whether pre-school boys and girls spend more time talking to same-sex or opposite sex children. In this example, preschool children represents_____________. the variable the hypothesis the population the sample Answer: d Page ref: 8 Researchers conducting a study in the US find that college-aged students in the Northeast tend to support same-sex marriages. They then decide to conduct the exact same study on college-aged students in the south and find similar results. This process of repeating a study to corroborate original results is known as ________________. validity reliability replication peer review Answer: c Page ref: 9 Which of the following statements is most accurate about descriptive research? Descriptive research can tell researchers what caused a behavior. Descriptive research allows investigators to control for all factors that may affect the results of a study. Descriptive research can be used to find out why an event occurred. Descriptive research can be used to gather information about characteristics of a population. Answer: d Page ref: 11 Laurie hypothesizes that women will be more likely than men to hold a door open for others. She decides to watch people coming in and out of a local coffee shop, recording the sex of each individual who holds the door open for another person. Laurie is conducting what type of research? Experimental research Naturalistic observation Archival research Correlational research Answer: b Page ref: 11 A researcher finds that there is a relationship between the amount of time college students spend at the library and performance on tests. Specifically, the more time spent at the library, the higher students scored on their exams. This relationship represents what type of correlation? A positive correlation A negative correlation No correlation An illusory correlation Answer: a Page ref: 12 Difficult Which of the following is a form of data collection in which participants are asked to rate or describe their own behavior or mental state? experimental research naturalistic observation survey method archival research Answer: c Page ref: 13 Kristen is interested in studying how heat influences crime. Using data from weather reports and police records of crime reports she tests the hypothesis that crime is higher on days that are hot. Kristen has conducted a(n) survey study observational study experiment archival study Answer: d Page ref: 13 What type of research involves exploring the relationship between two variables? correlational research naturalistic observation survey method archival research Answer: a Page ref: 13 Which of the following can be considered a major limitation of correlations? Correlations cannot tell you if two variables are related. Correlations are only studied in small samples. Correlations cannot tell you how much two variables are related. Correlations do not allow researchers to assess cause and effect between two variables. Answer: d Page ref: 13 Difficult A different factor that could be responsible for an observed effect between two other variables is defined as _____________. a matched sample a third variable the directionality problem both a third variable and the directionality problem Answer: b Page ref: 13 Daniel conducts a study looking at the relationship between exercise and depression and finds there is a negative correlation. Daniel concludes that exercise causes people to become less depressed. However, a colleague points out the possibility that less depressed people may simply be more likely to exercise. This represents a problem in interpreting correlations best known as ____________. The problem of direction The third variable problem Experimenter bias Confounding Answer: a Page ref: 14 Difficult All of the following can be considered a descriptive method except: Experimental research Naturalistic observation Archival research Correlational research Answer: a Page ref: 14 A research design in which two or more groups of individuals are identical, or matching, on a third variable is known as ____________. an archival design a correlational design a matched samples design a survey method design Answer: c Page ref: 14 You conduct a study on college students and find that there is a positive correlation between exercise and happiness. What can you conclude based on your findings? If college students exercise, they will be happy. An increase in exercise is associated with an increase in happiness. An increase in happiness is associated with an increase in exercise. Both an increase in exercise is associated with an increase in happiness and an increase in happiness is associated with an increase in exercise. Answer: d Page ref: 13-14 Difficult Which of the following statements represent a major difference between experimental methods and descriptive methods? Experimental methods do not involve manipulation of variables. Experimental methods do not involve controlling potential third variables. Experimental methods allow for identification of cause and effect. Both experimental methods do not involve manipulation of variables and experimental methods do not involve controlling potential third variables. Answer: c Page ref: 14 A researcher who wants to know whether drinking caffeine causes increased energy would be most likely to conduct what type of study? An archival study An experimental study A correlational study An observational study Answer: b Page ref: 14 Experimental research involves which of the following? Demonstrating correlations between variables Random assignment of participants to experimental conditions Manipulation of the independent variable Both random assignment of participants to experimental conditions and manipulation of the independent variable Answer: d Page ref: 14 Field experiments are considered to be high in which of the following? Internal validity External validity Internal validity and reliability Neither internal or external validity Answer: b Page ref: 14 You want to conduct an experiment but you are concerned with being able to apply your findings to the general population. You would be more likely to conduct what type of study in this situation? Naturalistic observation Correlational study Lab experiment Field experiment Answer: d Page ref: 14 Difficult In an experimental research design, the group that receives the main treatment or manipulation is called ____________. the experimental group the control group the research group the manipulated group Answer: a Page ref: 15 In an experimental research design, the group that does not receive the main treatment, and is used for comparison to the treatment group is called ____________. the experimental group the control group the research group the manipulated group Answer: b Page ref: 15 In an attempt to determine whether noise interferes with performance, Marc randomly assigns participants to take a math test either while listening to loud music or in silence. In this study, performance is considered the: independent variable predictor dependent variable the control group Answer: c Page ref: 15 Difficult In an attempt to determine whether noise interferes with performance, Marc randomly assigns participants to take a math test either while listening to loud music or in silence. In this study, the presence of absence of noise would be considered the: independent variable subject variable dependent variable random variable Answer: a Page ref: 15 Difficult One reason random assignment is considered important in experimental research is because it allows researchers to determine which two variables are correlated to one another. it allows a more representative sample of participants to be chosen for the study . it allows researchers the ability to infer cause and effect. both it allows a more representative sample of participants to be chosen for the study and it allows researchers the ability to infer cause and effect. Answer: c Page ref: 15 Difficult When every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment this is termed: random assignment random sampling participant bias manipulation of the independent variable Answer: a Page ref: 15 Which of the following statements about random assignment is NOT true: Random assignment is important for inferring cause and effect. Random assignment ensures that participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any group in the experiment. Random assignment is most relevant for ensuring external validity. Random assignment ensures that each group contains the same type of participants. Answer: c Page ref: 15 Difficult An experimenter finds that students in a morning class perform better on a math test after being taught with a new teaching method compared with students in an afternoon class who are taught with a standard teaching method. He concludes that the new teaching method is superior to the old method. The main problem with this experimenter’s conclusion is: He did not find a random sample of participants. He did not consider the importance of external validity. He did not consider the possible influence of participant bias. He did not consider the time of day that students were being taught. Answer: d Page ref: 17 Difficult When a participant’s suspicions, expectations, or assumptions about the study influence the results this is known as ______________. confounding participant bias deception invalidity Answer: b Page ref: 17 A subject in your study correctly assumes that you are interested in whether people behave in a prejudicial way towards people of a homosexual orientation. She then goes out of her way to act friendly and nice. This represents an example of ______________. the placebo effect participant bias error experimenter bias Answer: b Page ref: 18 A measureable improvement that is found in a participant that cannot be attributed to any treatment given by the experimenter is known as ___________ the placebo effect participant bias error confounding Answer: a Page ref: 18 In order to avoid the problem of the placebo effect, a researcher could do which of the following? Find a random sample of participants. Inform participants that they are not receiving the active treatment pill. Conduct a single-blind study. Inform participants that they are not receiving the sugar pill. Answer: c Page ref: 18 A researcher gives half of her participants a new anti-anxiety pill and the other half a placebo pill. She does not tell participants whether they have received an active treatment pill or a sugar pill. This is an example of what type of study? a prospective study a single-blind study a double-blind study a observational study Answer: b Page ref: 18 As your book describes, Rosenthal and Jacobson conducted a study in 1969 which showed that teachers’ expectations about the intelligence level of students influenced their subsequent behavior and treatment of the students. This study illustrates a potential problem known as ____________. experimenter bias placebo effect participant bias subject bias Answer: a Page ref: 18 Difficult When neither the experimenter nor the participant knows who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group, this is known as ______________. a single-blind study experimenter bias a double-blind study participant bias Answer: c Page ref: 18 According to your text, what type of study is considered the ‘gold standard’ in research because it offers the least threat of bias from participants or the experimenter? a observational study a field experiment a single-blind study a double-blind study Answer: d Page ref: 18 Stanley Milgram conducted a famous study where he led participants to believe that they were administering increasingly painful electric shocks to another ‘participant’ when that person answered a question incorrectly. The false information provided to participants is known as ______________. participant bias deception manipulation experimenter bias Answer: b Page ref: 19 At the end of a study, researchers are required to provide information to a participant about the hypotheses being tested, any deception that was used, and reasons for the use of deception. This process is termed _____________. deceptive disclosure informed consent debriefing autonomy Answer: c Page ref: 19 Christine conducted a study looking at how images of thin female bodies influenced participants’ views of their own body. She told participants as much as she could before the study began but had to use some deception. Participants were told that their job was to look at a series of images of women and rate the appeal of the clothing being worn. Afterwards she had participants fill out questionnaires, including a measure of body dissatisfaction. Once participants filled out the questionnaires, she thanked them and sent them on their way. What ethical guideline did Christine fail to follow? She did not obtain informed consent. She did not tell her participants the exact reason for her study before it began. She did not follow the principle of autonomy. She did not debrief her participants. Answer: d Page ref: 19 Difficult Which of the following is a basic ethical principle outlined in the Belmont Report by The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research? Beneficence Autonomy Justice All answers listed are correct. Answer: d Page ref: 19 Researches who wish to conduct studies are NOT required to do which of the following? Provide participants with information about the risks and benefits to participating in the study. Provide participants with a full explanation of the hypothesis being tested following the experiment. Provide participants with information about the exact hypothesis before the study begins so that subjects can make an informed decision about whether they want to participate. Provide sufficient detail before the study begins so that subjects can make an informed decision about whether they want to participate. Answer: c Page ref: 19 Difficult Which ethical principle in the Belmont requires researchers do no harm by maximizing the potential benefits to participants and minimizing the potential harm? Beneficence Justice Autonomy Integrity Answer: a Page ref: 19 Which ethical principle in the Belmont requires that the benefits and the burdens of the research be fairly distributed? Beneficence Justice Autonomy Objectivity Answer: b Page ref: 19 Which of the following statements best describes the primary responsibility of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)? The IRB ensures that researchers do not use any deception in their studies. The IRB ensures that researchers debrief participants only when absolutely necessary The IRB ensures that researchers report and publish the findings of their studies. The IRB ensures that the proposed studies meet ethical guidelines for human and non-human research participation. Answer: d Page ref: 19 Subjects are told at the beginning of a study as much information as possible so that they can determine if they would like to participate. This is termed _______________. Debriefing Justice Informed consent Both justice and informed consent Answer: c Page ref: 19 61) When a hypothesis is not supported by the data this means that it false. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 23 62) When an operational definition is valid this suggests that it measures what it is supposed to measure. a. True b. False Answer: a Page Reference: 24 63) Replication is key to validating research findings. a. True b. False Answer: a Page Reference: 25 64) A study that asks participants to rate their level of satisfaction with life is an example of a naturalistic observational study. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 27 65) A negative correlation between stress and job performance suggests that higher stress levels cause poorer job performance. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 28 66) Experimental methods do not allow researchers to identify causes of behaviours and events. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 30 67) If an experimenter seeks to learn the effects of music on anxiety and manipulates the type of music participants listen to, music is considered the independent variable. a. True b. False Answer: a Page Reference: 30 68) It is usually the case that if you increase the internal validity of your study, then you will be decreasing the external validity at the same time. a. True b. False Answer: a Page Reference: 31 69) Random assignment is not necessary for researchers to be able to infer cause and effect in experimental studies. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 31 70) An experimenter who decides not to tell participants whether they are receiving a treatment pill or a sugar pill is conducting a double-blind study. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 34 71) A single-blind study would be used to reduce experimenter bias. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 34 72) In some cases it has been found that a sugar pill produces the same result as an active treatment pill. a. True b. False Answer: a Page Reference: 34 73) Participant bias occurs when the researcher subconsciously shows bias in his/her evaluation of the results in order to reach a desired conclusion. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 34 74) Peggy does not provide research participants with a full explanation of her hypothesis after her study is complete. Peggy has failed to obtain what is known as informed consent. a. True b. False Answer: b Page Reference: 35 75) If it is necessary for the integrity of a study, researchers are allowed to utilize deception. a. True b. False Answer: a Page Reference: 35 76) Briefly outline the steps involved in the research process. Answer: Page Reference: 23–24 77) Identify the major problem with the following hypothesis: “Bad parenting leads children to behave rudely.” Briefly describe how you would re-phrase this hypothesis to make it testable. Answer: Page Reference: 23 78) You want to conduct a study looking at the relationship between exercise and stress. You hypothesize that people who report exercising more will also report lower levels of stress. Using this example, describe how you would operationally define the variables of interest for this study. Answer: Page Reference: 23 79) What is descriptive research? Briefly define two types of descriptive research. Answer: Page Reference: 26–27 80) Distinguish between positive and negative correlations. Provide an example of each one. Answer: Page Reference: 28 81) A researcher would like to investigate whether sleep is related to quality of life. What type of research method would allow him to explore the association between sleep and quality of life? Identify a limitation to the conclusions he could draw from his findings using this method. Answer: Page Reference: 29 82) Describe how a matched samples design can help researchers avoid the third variable problem. Answer: Page Reference: 29 83) Explain why random assignment is important for inferring cause and effect in experimental research. Answer: Page Reference: 31 84) Why do researchers have to guard against participant and experimenter bias? Describe one way researchers can avoid these problems. Answer: Page Reference: 33–34 85) A researcher is testing a new drug designed to improve weight loss. Describe how she should design her study to avoid the placebo effect. In your answer, be sure to describe the placebo effect. Answer: Page Reference: 34 86) Can social psychologists use deception in their research? Why would researchers deceive participants? Describe two components that are required for the ethical deception of participants. Answer: Page Reference: 35 87) Describe how you would conduct a naturalistic observational study to explore racial discrimination between black and white university students. Name one advantage this type of research design might offer over self-report or survey methods for investigating a topic like racial discrimination. Answer: Page Reference: 27 88) Compare and contrast descriptive methods and experimental methods. What distinguishes these two research methods from one another? Answer: Page Reference: 27, 30 89) Explain why it is difficult to draw causal inferences from correlational studies. Despite not being able to determine cause and effect from correlational studies, in what way can the findings still be useful and valuable? Provide an example. Answer: Page Reference: 28–30 90) Define experimental research. Describe the two components that are required to conduct experimental research. Answer: 91) Compare and contrast internal and external validity. In an experimental design, can both internal and external validity be maximized at the same time? Why or why not? Answer: Page Reference: 30 92) Design an experiment to test the hypothesis that caffeine causes excitability. Name and describe the independent and dependent variables. Identify a potential confound and consider how you would address this in your study. Answer: 93) Distinguish between single-blind and double-blind studies. What is the advantage of conducting a double-blind study and why is it considered the ‘gold-standard’ in research? Answer: 94) Describe the three core principles of Canadian ethical policies. Refer to the role of institutional research ethics boards (REBs) and describe the role of informed consent. Answer: True/False Questions Hindsight bias refers to the tendency for people to overestimate the extent to T F which others share their beliefs and behaviors Answer: False Page ref: 5 When a hypothesis is not supported by the data this means that it false. T F Answer: False Page ref: 8 When an operational definition is valid this suggests that it measures what it is T F supposed to measure. Answer: True Page ref: 8 A study that asks participants to rate their level of satisfaction with life T F is an example of a naturalistic observational study. Answer: False Page ref: 13 A negative correlation between stress and job performance suggests that higher stress T F levels cause poorer job performance. Answer: False Page ref: 13 Experimental methods do not allow researchers to identify causes of behaviors T F and events. Answer: False Page ref: 14 It is usually the case that if you increase the internal validity of your study, then T F you will be decreasing the external validity at the same time. Answer: True Page ref: 15 If an experimenter seeks to learn the effects of music on anxiety and manipulates T F the type of music participants listen to, music is considered the independent variable. Answer: True Page ref: 15 Random assignment is not necessary for researchers to be able to infer cause and T F in experimental studies. Answer: False Page ref: 15 An experimenter who decides not to tell participants whether they are receiving T F a treatment pill or a sugar pill is conducting a double-blind study. Answer: False Page ref: 18 In some cases it has been found that a sugar pill produces the same T F result as an active treatment pill. Answer: True Page ref: 18 Participant bias occurs when the researcher subconsciously shows bias in his/her T F evaluation of the results in order to reach a desired conclusion. Answer: False Page ref: 18 An experimenter who has falsely told participants they are taking part in a study about T F food preferences when the study is really concerned with eating disorders has utilized deception. Answer: True Page ref: 19 Peggy does not provide research participants with a full explanation of her T F hypothesis after her study is complete. Peggy has failed to obtain what is known as informed consent. Answer: False Page ref: 19 If it is necessary for the integrity of a study, researchers are allowed to utilize T F deception. Answer: True Page ref: 19 Short Answer Questions Briefly outline the steps involved in the research process. Page ref: 7-8 Identify the major problem with the following hypothesis: “Bad parenting leads children to behave rudely.” Briefly describe how you would re-phrase this hypothesis to make it testable. Page ref: 8 You want to conduct a study looking at the relationship between exercise and stress. You hypothesize that people who report exercising more will also report lower levels of stress. Using this example, describe how you would operationally define the variables of interest for this study. Page ref: 11 What is descriptive research? Briefly define two types of descriptive research. Page ref: 11-13 Distinguish between positive and negative correlations. Provide an example of each one. Page ref: 13 A researcher would like to investigate whether sleep is related to quality of life. What type of research method would allow him to explore the association between sleep and quality of life? Identify a limitation to the conclusions he could draw from his findings using this method. Page ref: 13 Describe how a matched samples design can help researchers avoid the third variable problem. Page ref: 13 Explain why random assignment is important for inferring cause and effect in experimental research. Page ref: 15 Why do researchers have to guard against participant and experimenter bias? Describe one way researchers can avoid these problems. Page ref: 18 A researcher is testing a new drug designed to improve weight loss. Describe how she should design her study to avoid the placebo effect. In your answer, be sure to describe the placebo effect. Page ref: 18 Name the three basic ethical principles outline by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Pick two of the three ethical principles and provide a brief explanation of each one. Page ref: 19 Essay Questions Explain why it is difficult to draw causal inferences from correlational studies. Despite not being able to determine cause and effect from correlational studies, in what way can the findings still be useful and valuable? Provide an example. Page ref: 13-14 Describe how you would conduct a naturalistic observational study to explore racial discrimination between Black and White college students. Name one advantage this type of research design might offer over self report or survey methods for investigating a topic like racial discrimination. Page ref: 11 Compare and contrast descriptive methods and experimental methods. What distinguishes these two research methods from one another? Page ref: 13-14 Define experimental research. Describe the two components that are required to conduct experimental research. Page ref: 14 Compare and contrast internal and external validity. In an experimental design, can both internal and external validity be maximized at the same time? Why or why not? Page ref: 14-15 Design an experiment to test the hypothesis that caffeine causes excitability. Name and describe the independent and dependent variables. Identify a potential confound and consider how you would address this in your study. Page ref: 15-17 Distinguish between single-blind and double-blind study studies. What is the advantage of conducting a double-blind study and why is it considered the ‘gold-standard’ in research? Page ref: 19 Describe the primary responsibilities of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)? When would an IRB deem it acceptable for researchers to use deception in their studies? Page ref: 19 The Science of Social Psychology Chapter Overview/Summary You are on a diet and you smell French fries. You try not to think about it but that is all you can think about. A friend is on the same diet and says, “all I have to do is try not to think about it and the urge to order those fries goes away.” Why does the effort to try not to think about something appear to work sometimes (or for some persons) but not others? These are the kinds of questions that Social psychologists ask and attempt to answer – not by conjecture but through research. The text suggests that, “the science of social psychology helps us objectively examine our thoughts and behaviors, and this is done through research.” The emphasis in this chapter is on the scientific (research) methods used in social psychology. A major goal of this chapter is to educate students about research methods as a more effective alternative to “common sense” in determining why people behave the way they behave (especially in social settings). Chapter Outline How Can Research Methods Impact You Every Day? The most important way that understanding research can help the person is by providing him or her with the information that is needed to critically evaluate information. In other words, the goal is to assist the person in becoming a critical consumer of information. The way people estimate odds, for example, is based more on past experience than facts. If the person won a small amount of money in the lottery, they are likely to overestimate the chances of winning a larger sum. Critical consumers realize that higher price is not always equated with quality or that advertised temporary discounts do not mean the item is cheaper than it would have been before. The importance of social psychological research can best be understood when the person understands that the conclusions reached by psychological research are more than just common sense. When research is reported and the findings make sense to us, it is easy to assume that everyone agrees with this and that it is “correct” information because it makes sense to us. We tend to “look back” and assume things that have already happened are more predictable than they were before they happened. This tendency is referred to as Hindsight Bias. It is easy to assume that others see things the same way we do because it seems “right” to us. The False Consensus Effect, then, is “the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.” But having it make sense to us when we hear it is not the same as really understanding it nor is it the same as verifying those assumptions. Research allows us to test our assumptions and judge the likelihood that the information is valid. Additionally, many common sense notions are actually false. Many assume, for example, that women fall in love faster than men. Research, however, does not support this assumption. Men actually appear to fall in love faster than women. So, common sense notions need to be studied for several reasons. First, just because something makes sense to us does not mean that we understand it nor does it mean it would have made sense to us without it being brought to our attention. In other words, there is a difference between hearing something and thinking, “that makes sense” and actually thinking that on our own without prompting. Second, to critically evaluate information, common sense notions must be tested because they often prove to be false. Lastly, common sense is built upon experience. As our experiences within a culture change, so, too, do our views about what makes sense. It may seem like common sense now to wear a seatbelt but that has not always been the case. How Do Social Psychologists Find the Truth? The answer is simple – research! Research is like detective work. Social psychologists gather evidence in an effort to answer a question. Observation often leads to questions and these questions guide the development of research. The first step in this process is to develop a research question. Maybe you have noticed that many companies use celebrities to “sponsor” their products. A good question might be – why? What follows from these questions are theories. A theory is a general framework for understanding a concept that allows us to describe, explain, and predict behavior. A theory is a framework that ties together existing ideas, from which we can make and test predictions about future events or behaviors. It explains a set of observations and is considered to be better as more data are collected to support its predictions. Good theories will attempt to explain behavior, generate a testable model, and use multiple methods. Once a research question is formed, the next step in the research process is to scour the preexisting, relevant research literature. Doing so provides background information on the topic, giving an understanding of the broader context of the research as well as the limits of the topic. Before starting a search, scientists identify the relevant key words. Looking for these key words in journal articles and books published by other scientists can yield useful materials. Remember, although Wikipedia and personal blogs and Web sites may be easy to use, the information is not always accurate nor has it undergone peer review (the process by which experts in the field review and comment on each other’s work), so it is therefore not considered reliable. This material can be used to form a testable hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that can be either supported or disproven with statistics. It must be testable with variables, stimuli or characteristics that can take on different values, and must be capable of being falsified. This doesn’t mean that it is false, but rather that the data don’t support it. Applying an operational definition, or a definition that assigns one or more specific operational conditions to an event and then identifies how those conditions should be measured, can make a variable specific. An example of a hypothesis in need of tweaking would be, “Good design makes people better at navigating a Web site.” It is important that operational definitions are valid, meaning they measure what they are supposed to measure, and reliable, meaning the results are consistent measurements (Robinson, 2007). Validity and reliability are vital in a hypothesis so that one’s desire to support a theory does not lead to manipulation of the facts of research. Once a testable hypothesis is formed, it is time to propose a study. To do this, the researcher must determine the best method to collect data for the hypothesis. This includes choosing the sample, or who or what subjects will be tested, and describing the reasons for testing this particular group. When it comes to research processes, replication can be used to apply the basic findings of one study to another. Replication describes the process of repeating a study to verify effects, usually with a different sample of participants to determine whether the findings of the original are applicable to other variables. What Can Descriptive Methods Show Us? No method is perfect; each has advantages and limitations. However, if multiple studies using a wide range of methodologies all generate similar results, we can be more confident in our conclusions and develop a better understanding of the behavior we are studying. Using descriptive methods of research is a common practice in psychology. Descriptive research is used to obtain information regarding the current status of a population or phenomena to describe the who, what, when, where, and how questions with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The common thread among all descriptive methods is that their purpose is to describe a phenomenon or the relationship of two or more variables. In this section, we will discuss the different descriptive methods researchers use to test their hypotheses. Observation can occur in a contained environment or in the real world. A contained environment like a laboratory is useful when certain variables must be consistent (Evans & Rooney, 2008). For instance, a researcher may put study participants in a contrived party situation to examine how three alcoholic drinks impact the participants’ willingness to dance. But even if the atmosphere is realistic, some elements of the manufactured situation could alter the way the participants feel and behave, thus damaging the validity of the study. In this situation, a naturalistic observation might be most appropriate. Naturalistic observation involves watching behavior in a real-world setting. Observations can be collected with video or audio recordings or with old-fashioned paper and pencil. To observe the dancing behaviors of a group of people, one could attend a wedding or a birthday party and take note of the relevant whos, whats, and whys. The self-report or survey method is a form of data collection in which participants are asked to rate or describe their own behaviors or mental states (e.g., I am satisfied, I am unsatisfied, I have no opinion). This type of method is typically conducted in the form of interviews or questionnaires. Archival studies entail culling information from existing records ranging from magazine articles to Web site analytics. The appeal of archival research is that researchers can look at data from an extended period of time, knowing that they will not inadvertently influence the implications. Data from descriptive studies may lead researchers to notice correlations. Correlational research, often the first level of investigation, aims to explore if there is a relationship between two variables. For example, a correlational study might find that there is a relationship between poor sleeping habits and lower grades, but that doesn’t mean that poor sleeping habits necessarily cause unsatisfactory grades. Correlations can be very useful for determining whether two or more variables are connected, but there are definitive limitations to the conclusions that can be drawn from the findings of a correlational study. One of the most common errant conclusions of a correlational study is that one element of the relationship causes the other (e.g., oxytocin causes a person to trust another more easily). But correlation does not automatically indicate causation. Two variables can be connected without having a cause-and-effect relationship. For example, there may be a correlation between men who wear blue socks and men who hold high-paying jobs, but that does not mean that wearing blue socks will earn a man a higher salary. Two reasons why it is difficult to draw a causal inference from correlational studies are the third variable problem and the problem of direction. The first suggests that there is a third variable, any other factor that could be responsible for the observed effect. For example, when we hear that there is a correlation between aggression and watching television, a possible third variable might be lack of supervision. When children are left unsupervised, they may watch more aggressive television. To avoid the third variable, researchers might choose study participants through the use of matched samples. A matched samples design is a research design in which two or more groups of individuals are identical, or matching, in terms of the third variable. What Do Experimental Methods Have to Say? Although descriptive methods of research often provide valuable data, many studies benefit from experimental methods. Experimental research attempts to control all the factors (like a potential third variable) that may affect the results of an experiment. Controlling these factors allows the researcher to identify the exact cause of an event or behavior and therefore predict future events or behaviors. In social psychology, experiments can take place in the laboratory and also in the field. Field experiments, similar to naturalistic observation, are considered to be high in external validity, which is the extent to which results apply to a general population. Lab experiments cater more toward internal validity, which is focused on a particular experiment and therefore better for examining potential cause-and-effect relationships. There is usually a trade-off with internal and external validity; if you increase one, you usually decrease the other. A study cannot be an experiment without the manipulation of an independent variable. An independent variable is the variable the experimenter has control over and can alter. A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter does not control, and it is used to measure whether the change in the independent variable has had an effect. Therefore, the dependent variable were the participants’ subsequent levels of generosity to strangers. The group that gets the main treatment or manipulation, in this case the oxytocin, is called the experimental group. The group that doesn’t, and can be used for comparisons, is called the control group. The second component of a true experiment is random assignment. Random assignment is a required technique in an experiment to be able to infer cause and effect; every participant has any equal chance of being assigned to any group in the experiment. In order for an experiment to be considered valid, the independent variable must be the only differentiating factor in the experimental group and the control group. If there is an additional difference in the groups, then it is impossible to know whether it was the independent variable that forced an effect on the dependent variable. Psychologists refer to any difference other than the levels of the independent variable between the experimental group and the control group to be a confounding variable, or confound. Researchers can do their best to control every aspect of an experiment, but when dealing with human beings it can be difficult to control everything, so researchers must plan for some things to go wrong. Participant bias occurs when a participant’s suspicions, expectations, or assumptions about the study influence the results. Chapter Key Terms (in order of appearance in chapter) 1.) Hindsight Bias = the tendency to “look back” and assume things that have already happened are more predictable than they were before they happened. 2.) False Consensus Effect = the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. 3.) Theory = a general framework for understanding a concept that allows us to describe, explain, and predict behavior. 4.) Peer review = the process by which experts in the field review and comment on each other’s work, so it is therefore not considered reliable. 5.) Hypothesis = a proposed explanation that can be either supported or disproven with statistics. A hypothesis must be capable of being falsified (proven false). 6.) Variables = stimuli or characteristics that can take on different values. 7.) Operational definition = a definition that assigns one or more specific operational conditions to an event and then identifies how those conditions should be measured, can make a variable specific. 8.) Valid = meaning a measure measures what it is supposed to measure. 9.) Reliable = meaning the results are consistent measurements. 10.) Sample = who or what subjects will be tested. 11.) Replication = describes the process of repeating a study to verify effects, usually with a different sample of participants to determine whether the findings of the original are applicable to other variables. 12.) Descriptive research = is used to obtain information regarding the current status of a population or phenomena to describe the who, what, when, where, and how questions with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. 13.) Naturalistic observation = involves watching behavior in a real-world setting. Observations can be collected with video or audio recordings or with old-fashioned paper and pencil. 14.) Self-report or survey method = is a form of data collection in which participants are asked to rate or describe their own behaviors or mental states (e.g., I am satisfied, I am unsatisfied, I have no opinion). 15.) Archival studies = entail culling information from existing records ranging from magazine articles to Web site analytics. 16.) Correlational research = aims to explore if there is a relationship between two variables. 17.) Third variable = any other factor that could be responsible for the observed effect. 18.) Matched samples design = is a research design in which two or more groups of individuals are identical, or matching, in terms of the third variable. 19.) Experimental research = attempts to control all the factors (like a potential third variable) that may affect the results of an experiment. 20.) External validity = which is the extent to which results apply to a general population. 21.) Internal validity = which is focused on a particular experiment and therefore better for examining potential cause-and-effect relationships. 22.) Independent variable = is the variable the experimenter has control over and can alter. 23.) Dependent variable = is the variable the experimenter does not control, and it is used to measure whether the change in the independent variable has had an effect. 24.) Experimental group = the group that gets the main treatment or manipulation. 25.) Control group = the group that doesn’t, and can be used for comparisons. 26.) Random assignment = every participant has any equal chance of being assigned to any group in the experiment. 27.) Confound = any difference other than the levels of the independent variable between the experimental group and the control group. 28.) Participant bias = occurs when a participant’s suspicions, expectations, or assumptions about the study influence the results. Lecture Launchers & Discussion Topics In-Class Survey Tim Wilson suggests creating and conducting a survey in class to illustrate correlations, t-tests, generalizations, etc. Ask the class to think of hypotheses and design the survey. They usually think of interesting questions (e.g., correlating the amount of alcohol consumption with the frequency of engaging in sexual intercourse or with grade-point average). Obviously, the data are collected anonymously. You may also be able to collect this data in the beginning of class via the course website or a survey data collection website (e.g., survey monkey, qualtrics) and then use the data you collected from your students to demonstrate correlational methods from this chapter and to make later topics more self-relevant. Writing Hypotheses Joyce Schaeuble of Sacramento City College suggests that to give students practice in writing hypotheses, you can ask them to rewrite a TV talk-show topic (e.g., Should schools have dress codes? Is videotaping crimes changing our court system?) into a testable hypothesis.  Also have them operationally define their independent and dependent variables. Why Did He Do That? Describe the following scenario to students: “you are walking to the Psychology building for your next class. You decide to take a short cut by walking through the ground floor of the parking garage. While doing this, you see a young man, about your own age repeatedly kicking a dog. Although you do not have time to stop and evaluate this situation, you think about it as you complete your walk to class.” Have some students consider what a descriptive explanation of this situation include. Keeping in mind that the goal is to develop descriptions that are reliable, valid and unbiased, how would you describe this situation to someone else? What would you include in your description? What would you not include? Have other students consider what an explanatory explanation of this situation would include. Have all students link the type of explanation they are generating to the goals of research. How Are the Genders Different? From an early age, boys and girls begin to act differently from one another. Boys may, for example, begin to show stronger skills for throwing a ball and girls may begin to show improved skills for movement activities such as dancing. Are these differences genetic? Are they learned? Have students consider which research method(s) would work best for examining the gender differences of boys compared to girls. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the various methods for this task? Does Violent TV Lead to Aggression? Suggest to students that friends of theirs have suggested that watching violent television causes children to behave more aggressively. Which methods could a researcher use to examine the hypothesis that television leads to aggression? What are the strengths and limitations of each method? Other Questions to Launch Class 1. List one strength and one weakness for each of the descriptive methods. 2. What different methodologies could you use to examine activity preferences of men and women in hobbies? 3. How could you minimize the social desirability bias in survey research? 4. If your speedometer is always inaccurate by 5 miles per hour, is it reliable? Is it valid? 5. Which correlation is larger, a correlation of +.7 or a correlation of -.8? Explain how the absolute value indicates the strength of the relationship, while the sign indicates the direction. 6. If you find a strong correlation between men's shoe sizes and their IQ scores, why can't you conclude that having bigger feet makes you smarter? 7. Why is random assignment of value in research? Activities/Exercises Exercise 2–1 Name That Method The exercise in the handout will allow students to try their hands at determining the type of methodology used based on a brief description of a study. Have students work on the problems first on their own, then in a small group, and then review in a general class discussion. Discussion: Answers to the problems follow. 1. This is a correlational study examining the association between caffeine consumption and the number of daily hassles experienced. The only question that the researcher can examine is whether or not there is a correlation between these two variables. You can use this example to drive home the idea that correlation does not equal causation by asking students to generate the three possible explanations for any correlation between two variables. If there is a correlation, it could be due (1) to daily stressors leading people to consume more caffeine, (2) to caffeine either actually causing people to make more minor errors and thus experience more daily hassles or causing them to perceive more events as daily hassles, or (3) to some third variable, e.g., number of hours spent at work in a week, which independently leads people both to consume more caffeine and to experience more daily hassles. 2. This is an experiment. The independent variable is whether or not the participant got a free ticket to the happy movie and just finished watching it (this contains two positive mood inductions – getting something free and a happy movie). This is an operationalization of the mood variable, since the researchers presumed that people who get a free ticket and see the movie will be happy. The dependent variable is whether or not the participant helps. The hypothesis is that subjects who are put in a good mood will be more likely to help. This example provides a good opportunity to introduce the concept of operationalization, and to discuss the relationship between theory and data. Also note for the students that this exemplifies an experiment conducted in the field rather than in the laboratory. Additional discussion could center on other ways that the mood could be manipulated and that helping could be measured. Also ask students what possible problems could occur in conducting research in the field. Most objections students will raise center around the lack of control in the field setting, giving you the opportunity to stress that variability in events in the field adds to error variance and thus make it harder to find an effect. The variability itself doesn’t invalidate the experiment. You could also ask students to design a laboratory experiment to test the same hypothesis, and have them compare and contrast the advantages of the field experiment and the lab experiments. 3. This is a correlational study. Some students may get confused and say that it is an observational study, since archival analysis is described under this section in the textbook. This example provides you the opportunity to stress that even though this study is archival, it is primarily correlational because it focuses on the relationship between two variables, and not just on describing the pattern of one variable. The hypothesis is that there is a positive correlation between ambient temperature and aggression, measured by the number of batters hit by pitched balls. Some students may wish to argue with this operationalization of aggression—again, a good opportunity to discuss the idea of operationalization and the relationship between theory and data. If students argue that this is not a good operationalization of aggression because some of the hits are really just accidents, you can explain that although that is certainly true, those accidents are really just adding to error variance. Other complaints that students might raise are that the “hits” do not measure aggression of the pitchers, but instead measure poor control of the ball by the pitcher or slow reaction times by the batter. If these are mentioned, then ask students what their interpretation of the finding would be, and what better operationalization of aggression they might choose instead. 4. This is an experiment since one of the two independent variables is manipulated and randomly assigned. The two independent variables are sex (male/female) and performance (success/failure), and the dependent variable is self-esteem. The hypotheses being tested might be something like: women, but not men, will show lower self-esteem after failure, while both sexes will show higher self-esteem after a success. Having students generate hypotheses for this study will allow you to mention briefly that this is a factorial design and that the researchers are interested in the interaction of the variables, that is, the way that one independent variable affects the dependent variable, depending upon the level of the other independent variable. 5. This is primarily a correlational study, since both variables are measured rather than manipulated. (Specifically, it is an ex-post facto study.) Some students will be misled into thinking that it is an experiment based on similarities to study #4. Emphasize that it is not a true experiment because participants are not randomly assigned to the gender condition. The association being measured is that between gender and susceptibility to persuasion (as measured by the amount of attitude change after exposure to a persuasive message). Exercise 2-2 Research Method Have students work in pairs or in small groups. Assign each group a number between one and five. Then pass out Handout 1 – 5. This handout asks students to use a particular research methodology to examine whether or not men are more likely to commit crimes. After the students have developed a plan, have all of those assigned to the naturalistic observation share their plan, then those who used a case study, etc. Have the students discuss the strengths and weaknesses for each method of addressing this research question. Then ask them to consider how they could combine methodologies. Would it be possible to conduct an experiment on this topic? What are the advantages and disadvantages of experimentation? This could be a good opening for a discussion of ethics in research. Exercise 2-3 Independent Variable versus Dependent Variable Have the students work in pairs or small groups on Handout 2–3. This Handout provides students with brief descriptions of research and asks them to identify the independent variables and the dependent variables. Exercise 2–4 Random Assignment Have the students work in pairs or small groups on Handout 1 – 7. This Handout provides students with a description of an experiment examining how public speaking affects heart rate. Students are asked to decide why random assignment is valuable. Have them share their interpretations. They should be able to recognize the problem of self-selection bias and recognize that the random assignment of participants to conditions eliminates all individual difference confounds (e.g., who drank coffee, who exercised, who slept). Exercise 2-5 Observer Bias Present the class with the research scenario described in Handout 1 – 9. Break the students into small groups and ask them to consider what they know about the experimental method. Given what they know, ask them to identify as many problems as they can with Dr. Turner’s study. Use this as an opportunity to discuss experimenter (or observer) bias, random assignment, rater reliability, internal validity, confounds, and demand characteristics. Also ask students to consider how Dr. Turner might redesign his study to avoid as many of these concerns as possible. Handouts HANDOUT 2-1 Instructions: Answer the following questions for each study described below. (1) Is the study primarily an observational study, a correlational study, or an experiment? Why do you give the answer you did? (2) What are the variables involved in the study? For experiments, specify the independent and dependent variables. (3) What might be the hypothesis that the researchers are trying to test? 1. A researcher is interested in the relationship between caffeine consumption and level of stress. S/he has participants keep a diary for one week during which they count the number of cups of coffee, tea, and cola-based soft drinks they consume, as well as recording consumption of chocolate and medications that have caffeine as an ingredient. In addition, participants complete a measure of “daily hassles” experienced during the week. _____Observational _____Correlational ______ Experimental Variables: Hypothesis: 2. A pair of psychologists is interested in the effects of mood on helping (based on Isen & Levin, 1972). They give participants free tickets to a feel good movie. They then have a confederate drop papers in front of people who just got out of the movie and people who are just walking by who have not just seen a happy movie for free. The researchers watch to see if the participants help pick up the dropped papers. _____Observational _____Correlational ______ Experimental Variables: Hypothesis: 3. Researchers (Reifman, Larrick, and Fein, 1988) were interested in the factors causing aggression. They looked at an entire baseball season’s worth of news reports. For each game, they recorded the temperature of the locale, and the number of batters who were hit by pitched balls. _____Observational _____Correlational ______ Experimental Variables: Hypothesis: 4. Researchers are interested in influences on self-esteem. Half of the participants used in this study are male and half are female. Participants are given a set of anagram problems to solve in a five minute time limit. Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams and half are given difficult ones. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, participants are given a questionnaire labeled “Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire” that is really a measure of self-esteem. _____Observational _____Correlational ______ Experimental Variables: Hypothesis: 5. Researchers are interested in what determines how easily people are persuaded. Half of the participants used in this study are male and half are female. During the session, participants rate their attitude towards an increase in fees that has been proposed at their school. Following this, they listen to a persuasive message providing strong arguments in favor of the fee increase. Finally, they re-rate their attitude towards the proposed fee. _____Observational _____Correlational ______ Experimental Variables: Hypothesis: HANDOUT 2-2 Research Method: 1. Naturalistic Observation 2. Case Study 3. Archival Research 4. Survey 5. Psychological Tests Using the research method assigned to your group, how would you best examine whether men are more likely than women to commit crimes? Use the space below to jot down your proposal. HANDOUT 2-3 Directions: For each research description, determine the independent and dependent variables. 1. Researchers want to see if paying artists for their work causes them to lose motivation to work on their art. They ask artists to rate how motivated they are to paint. Then, half of the artists are paid for painting and half are not. At the end of the study, the artists are asked to rate again how motivated they are to paint. Independent variable: Dependent variable: 2. Researchers want to see if college students are more committed to their fraternity after going through a hazardous hazing ritual. Half of the pledges are put through a hazardous hazing ritual and the other half are put through a non-hazardous ritual. After the ritual, all pledges are asked to rate how committed they are to the fraternity. Independent variable: Dependent variable: 3. Researchers want to test whether increased alcohol consumption leads to risky decisions. College students are asked to volunteer to consume alcohol. One group is given a single one-ounce drink of alcohol (equivalent to one glass of wine, one 12 ounce beer or a one ounce shot of liquor). The other group is given three one-ounce drinks (equivalent to three glasses of wine, three 12 ounce beers or three one-ounce shots of liquor). Both groups are given the opportunity to make risky decisions (such as whether or not to wear a seat belt while driving, etc.). Independent variable: Dependent variable: 4. A researcher wants to see if a participant is more likely to conform to a larger group's decision compared to a smaller group's decision. Half of the participants are assigned to a group of 3 and half are assigned to a group of 6. In both groups, all but the participant are a part of the experiment. All are asked to look at a stimulus line and to choose from among three alternatives which line on another chart matches the length of the stimulus line. All the other group members go first and pick the same incorrect comparison line. Then the “regular” participant is asked to pick the comparison line that matches the stimulus line. Independent variable: Dependent variable: 5. A researcher wants to see if a man is more attracted to a woman who shares many interests with him, or if he is more attracted to a date who likes different hobbies. Each male participant is provided with photographs and hobby information for two equally physically attractive women. One woman has many of the same hobbies as the male participant and the other has many hobbies that are different from the male participant. The male participant is asked to rate how attractive he finds each woman to be using a 10-point scale. Independent variable: Dependent variable: 6. A researcher wants to see if an aspirin advertisement increases sales if it uses a doctor spokesperson instead of a kindergarten teacher spokesperson. Sales of the aspirin brand are measured prior to implementation of the advertisements. For one-month, the advertisement with the kindergarten teacher spokesperson is shown on television and sales are measured. For the next month, the same type of advertisement is run but the spokesperson is identified as a doctor. Sales are measured again. Independent variable: Dependent variable: HANDOUT 2–4 Dr. Allen and Dr. Baker ran an experiment examining how public speaking affects heart rate. They had 100 participants and randomly assigned 50 of them simply to take a baseline heart rate. The other 50 students had to give an individual 10-minute speech in front of their class. During the speech, their heart rate was recorded. Dr. Andrews and Dr. Baker found that the mean heart rate in the baseline condition was 78 beats per minute. The mean heart rate in the public speaking condition was 128 beats per minute. These researchers decide they want to run a replication of their study. Dr. Andrews suggests allowing the participants to select whether they want to be in the baseline or the public speaking condition. Dr. Baker disagrees. Why? HANDOUT 2-5 Dr. Turner is interested in assessing personality differences in how people describe themselves. He has given a personality test that measures the degree to which people adjust their own behavior to match what other people are doing in the same situation. He believes that people that score low on this scale are likely to use more internal characteristics to describe themselves whereas people who score high are predicted to use more external self-descriptors. He asks people from these two groups to write down the first 20 words or phrases that come to their minds when they are asked “who are you?”. Dr. Turner then analyzes the responses by categorizing them as “internal” or “external” and finds, as he hypothesized, that people who scored low on the personality scale use an average of 12 internal descriptors and 8 external, whereas the people who scored high on the test used an average of 7 internal descriptors and 13 external descriptors. 1.) Based on what you know about the experimental method, what list of potential issues of concern can you generate based on Dr. Turner’s study? In other words, are there flaws in the study that might be of concern when the data are interpreted? 2.) Based on what you know about the experimental method, what recommendations for changes would you make for Dr. Turner’s study? Suggested Readings Aronson, E. (1999). Adventures in experimental social psychology: Roots, branches, and sticky new leaves. In A. Rodrigues & R.V. Levine (Eds.), Reflections on 100 years of experimental social psychology (pp. 82-113). New York: Basicbooks. Coats, E. J., & Feldman, R. S. (2001). Classic and contemporary readings in social psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Cozby, P. C. (2007). Methods in Behavioral Research (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Crano, W. D., & Brewer, M. B. (2002). Principles and Methods of Social Research (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dunn, D. S. (2009). Research Methods for Social Psychology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Lesko, W.A. (2009). Readings in Social Psychology: General, Classic, and Contemporary Selections (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Education. Lovaglia, M. J. (2006). Knowing people The personal uses of social psychology (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Stanovich, K.E. (2006). How to think straight about psychology, 8th ed. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Websites http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/res_meth/login.html. An excellent interactive site which presents students with descriptions of the experimental, correlational, naturalistic observation, survey, and case study methods and their strengths and limitations, and then has self-quizzes that allow students to practice differentiating the techniques from each other and to identify the strengths and weaknesses of case examples. http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/tutorial/Colosi/lcolosi1.htm. An excellent research methods tutorial developed by William Trochim and his graduate students. http://www.socialpsychology.org. Social Psychology Network. The largest social psychology database on the Internet, developed and maintained by Scott Plous of Wesleyan University. Contains more than 5,000 links to social psychology-related resources, including a directory of social psychologists and of research groups, information about professional journals, an extensive directory of teaching resources, information about social psychology textbooks and about graduate programs, and access to online studies. http://jonathan.mueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/crow. Course Resources on the Web—Activities and exercises in social psychology. Jon Mueller of North Central College, Naperville, IL, created this site. It contains links to course assignments and activities developed and posted on the Web by many instructors of social psychology as well as links to lecture notes or outlines, social psychology websites, and information about using technology in teaching. http://www.spsp.org/what.htm. From the website of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. This page provides some basic information on what social psychology is, what careers one can pursue with a degree in social psychology, what sort of training is necessary, and how one can obtain more information about social psychology. http://www.socialpsychology.org/siteweek.htm. A website developed by Scott Plous and his social psychology classes over the years, based on the best web illustrations that students submitted. http://www.sesp.org. The homepage of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology. It contains information about membership to this organization and upcoming conferences.