Chapter 12

Invitation to Psychology Seventh Edition Chapter 12 Theories of Personality Learning Objectives (1 of 4) LO 12.1.A Describe the psychoanalytic perspective on the structure of personality, psychological defense mechanisms, and stages of psychosexual development. LO 12.1.B Explain how the views of Carl Jung differed from Sigmund Freud’s approach to personality. LO 12.1.C Summarize the ways in which psychodynamic theories falter under scientific scrutiny. Learning Objectives (2 of 4) LO 12.2.A Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or online. LO 12.2.B List and describe the characteristics of each of the Big Five personality dimensions. LO 12.3.A Define temperament and discuss how it relates to personality traits. LO 12.3.B Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality traits. Learning Objectives (3 of 4) LO 12.4.A Explain the concept of reciprocal determinism and discuss how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment. LO 12.4.B Summarize the evidence that suggests parental influence over children’s personality development is limited. LO 12.4.C Discuss some ways in which peers influence the development of personality in children. LO 12.5.A Compare individualist and collectivist cultures and describe some of the generalized personality differences between them. Learning Objectives (4 of 4) LO 12.5.B Evaluate some pros and cons of the cultural approach to understanding personality. LO 12.6.A Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. LO 12.6.B Discuss how the narrative approach to personality hinges on answering the central question, “Who am I?” LO 12.6.C Summarize the contributions and shortcomings of the humanist and narrative approaches to personality. Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (1 of 9) LO 12.1.A Describe the psychoanalytic perspective on the structure of personality, psychological defense mechanisms, and stages of psychosexual development. Freud and Psychoanalysis Personality A distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual Psychoanalysis A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (2 of 9) Freud and Psychoanalysis continued Psychodynamic theories Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (3 of 9) Freud and Psychoanalysis continued The Structure of Personality Id: A reservoir of unconscious energy divided into two drives The sexual instinct (fueled by the libido) The death instinct Ego: Referees between instinctive needs and social demands Helps to rein in the impulses of the id Superego: Moral ideals, conscience, and social standards Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (4 of 9) Freud and Psychoanalysis continued Defense Mechanisms Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness Repression Projection Displacement Regression Denial Your Turn (1 of 2) Your math instructor caught you with the textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that you know he knows you were cheating, you protest your innocence. This defense mechanism is __________. denial reaction formation regression displacement Your Turn (2 of 2) Your math instructor caught you with the textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that you know he knows you were cheating, you protest your innocence. This defense mechanism is __________. Correct answer: denial Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (5 of 9) Freud and Psychoanalysis continued The development of personality Psychosexual stages In Freud’s theory, the idea that sexual energy takes different forms as the child matures Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (6 of 9) Freud and Psychoanalysis continued Oedipus complex In psychoanalysis, a conflict occurring in the phallic stage, in which a child desires the parent of the other sex and views the same-sex parent as a rival Freud in perspective Many ideas scientifically untestable or failed to find support when tested Often bullied patients into accepting his explanations Ignored all evidence disconfirming his ideas What Do You Know? (1 of 6) Freud’s stages of personality development are the id, ego, and superego. True False What Do You Know? (2 of 6) Freud’s stages of personality development are the id, ego, and superego. Correct answer: True Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (7 of 9) LO 12.1.B Explain how the views of Carl Jung differed from Sigmund Freud’s approach to personality. Other Psychodynamic Approaches Carl Jung (1967) Collective unconscious The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of the humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and images (archetypes) that occur across all cultures Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (8 of 9) Other Psychodynamic Approaches continued Archetypes Universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, and dreams, which Jung argued reflect the collective unconscious Examples of archetypes: Mandala The hero The nurturing Earth mother or powerful father The shadow Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (9 of 9) LO 12.1.C Summarize ways in which psychodynamic theories falter under scientific scrutiny. Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories Lacking in three scientific ways Violating the principle of falsifiability Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients Basing theories of personality development on the retrospective accounts of adults What Do You Know? (3 of 6) Freud rigorously followed the scientific method to develop his theory of personality structure and development. True False What Do You Know? (4 of 6) Freud rigorously followed the scientific method to develop his theory of personality structure and development. Correct answer: False The Modern Study of Personality (1 of 5) LO 12.2.A Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or online. Popular Personality Tests Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Popular in business, at motivational seminars, and with matchmaking services Assigns people to one of 16 different types, depending on how the individual scores on the dimensions of introverted or extroverted, logical or intuitive Low reliability The Modern Study of Personality (2 of 5) Popular Personality Tests continued Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Consists of several hundred true/false statements Used for clinical assessments Anxiety, obsessiveness, conduct problems, social discomfort, paranoia The Modern Study of Personality (3 of 5) Popular Personality Tests continued Trait A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, or feeling Objective tests (inventories) Standardized questionnaires that typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves The Modern Study of Personality (4 of 5) LO 12.2.B List and describe the characteristics of each of the Big Five personality dimensions. Core Personality Traits Raymond B. Cattell (1973) Factor analysis A statistical method for identifying clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated and assumed to assess the same underlying trait or ability (i.e., factor) The Modern Study of Personality (5 of 5) Core Personality Traits continued Five central “robust factors” Extroversion vs. introversion Agreeableness vs. antagonism Conscientiousness vs. impulsiveness Emotional stability vs. neuroticism Openness vs. resistance to experience Figure 12.1 Consistency and Change in Personality Over the Lifespan Although the Big Five traits are fairly stable, changes do occur over the lifespan. As you can see, neuroticism is highest among young adults and then declines, whereas conscientiousness is lowest among young adults and then steadily increases (Costa et al., 1999). Which Is Correct? (1 of 2) John has a very messy dorm room, is always late for class, and can never find the notes he took in lecture. Which of the following best describes John’s personality? Conscientious Impulsive Which Is Correct? (2 of 2) John has a very messy dorm room, is always late for class, and can never find the notes he took in lecture. Which of the following best describes John’s personality? Correct answer: Impulsive What Do You Think? (1 of 4) There are drastic changes in an individual’s personality as he or she progresses through the life span. True False What Do You Think? (2 of 4) There are drastic changes in an individual’s personality as he or she progresses through the life span. Correct answer: False Genetic Influences on Personality (1 of 2) LO 12.3.A Define temperament and discuss how it relates to personality traits. Heredity and Temperament Temperament Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways Present in infancy, assumed to be innate Reactivity How excitable, arousable, or responsive a baby is Soothability How easily the baby is calmed when upset Genetic Influences on Personality (2 of 2) LO 12.3.B Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality traits. Heredity and Traits Heritability A statistical estimate of how much of the variability in a given trait can be explained by genetic differences among individuals within a group Heritability of personality traits is about 50 percent Within a group of people, about 50 percent of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability What Do You Think? (3 of 4) Your father is highly anxious and reactive. It is likely that your personality will be exactly the same as his. True False What Do You Think? (4 of 4) Your father is highly anxious and reactive. It is likely that your personality will be exactly the same as his. Correct answer: False Environmental Influences on Personality (1 of 5) LO 12.4.A Explain the concept of reciprocal determinism and discuss how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment. Situations and Social Learning Reciprocal determinism In social-cognitive learning theories, the two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits Environmental Influences on Personality (2 of 5) Situations and Social Learning continued Nonshared environment Unique aspects of a person’s environment and experience that are not shared with family members Partially explains why siblings raised in the same home would not have identical personalities: not every encounter each sibling has is shared by the other(s) Environmental Influences on Personality (3 of 5) LO 12.4.B Summarize the evidence that suggests that parental influence over children’s personality development is limited. Parental Influence – and Its Limits The shared environment of the home has little if any influence on personality Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all their children Even when parents try to be consistent, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out Environmental Influences on Personality (4 of 5) Parental Influence – and Its Limits continued Parents influence children unrelated to personality Religious beliefs Intellectual and occupational interests Motivation to succeed Adherence to traditional or modern notions of masculinity and femininity Profoundly influence if children feel loved, secure and valued Environmental Influences on Personality (5 of 5) LO 12.4.C Discuss some ways in which peers influence the development of personality in children. The Power of Peers Most children will do what they can to conform to the norms of their immediate peer group Core personality traits are profoundly shaped by learning, peers, situations, and experience Cultural Influences on Personality (1 of 4) LO 12.5.A Compare individualist and collectivist cultures and describe some of the generalized personality differences between them. Culture, Values, and Traits Individualist cultures Cultures in which the self is more likely to be regarded as autonomous, with individual goals and wishes prized above duty and relations with others Collectivist cultures Cultures in which the self is more likely to be regarded as embedded in relationships, with harmony with one’s group prized above individual goals and wishes Table 12.1 Some Generalized Difference Between Individualist and Collectivist Cultures {21E4AEA4-8DFA-4A89-87EB-49C32662AFE0}Members of Individualist Cultures Members of Collectivist Cultures Define the self as autonomous, independent of groups. Define the self as an interdependent part of groups. Give priority to individual, personal goals. Give priority to the needs and goals of the group. Value independence, leadership, achievement, self-fulfillment. Value group harmony, duty, obligation, security. Give more weight to an individual’s attitudes and preferences than to group norms as explanations of behavior. Give more weight to group norms than to individual attitudes as explanations of behavior. Attend to the benefits and costs of relationships; if costs exceed advantages, a person is likely to drop the relationship. Attend to the needs of group members; if a relationship is beneficial to the group but costly to the individual, the individual is likely to stay in the relationship. Cultural Influences on Personality (2 of 4) Culture, Values, and Traits continued Culture and the self Individualist and collectivist ways of defining the self influence Which personality traits we value How and whether we express emotions How much we value having relationships or maintaining freedom Cultural Influences on Personality (3 of 4) Culture, Values, and Traits continued Culture and traits When culture is not appropriately considered, people attribute unusual behavior to personality Timeliness and tardiness In some cultures, time is seen as a linear construct; being “on time” is seen as conscientious and thoughtful In other cultures, time is organized in a parallel fashion; the idea of being “on time” as being more important than a person is contradictory to the cultural norm What Do You Know? (5 of 6) Children in the U.S. are more egocentric and less altruistic than children in non-Western cultures. True False What Do You Know? (6 of 6) Children in the U.S. are more egocentric and less altruistic than children in non-Western cultures. Correct answer: True Cultural Influences on Personality (4 of 4) LO 12.5.B Evaluate some pros and cons of the cultural approach to understanding personality. Evaluating Cultural Approaches Cultural psychologists face the problem of how to describe cultural influences on personality without oversimplifying or stereotyping People vary according to their temperaments, beliefs, and learning histories, and this variation occurs within every culture The traits we value, our sense of self vs. community, our notions of the right way to behave begin with the culture in which we are raised The Inner Experience (1 of 6) LO 12.6.A Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. Humanist Approaches Humanist psychology A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential The Inner Experience (2 of 6) Humanist Approaches continued Abraham Maslow Peak experiences Rare moments of rapture caused by the attainment of excellence or the experience of beauty Self-actualization Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and satisfying Personality development could be viewed as a gradual progression toward self-actualization The Inner Experience (3 of 6) Humanist Approaches continued Carl Rogers Unconditional positive regard Love and support given to another person with no conditions attached Conditional positive regard When the love and support we get from others come with strings attached To get these positive messages, we must satisfy certain conditions or “costs” The Inner Experience (4 of 6) Humanist Approaches continued Rollo May Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety, and alienation Existentialism A philosophical approach that emphasizes the inevitable dilemmas and challenges of human existence The Inner Experience (5 of 6) LO 12.6.B Discuss how the narrative approach to personality hinges on answering the central question, “Who am I?” Narrative Approaches Importance of the life narrative Distinctive personality rests on the story your tell to answer the question, “Who am I?” Your stories about how you see and explain yourself are the essence of your personality The Inner Experience (6 of 6) LO 12.6.C Summarize the contributions and shortcomings of the humanist and narrative approaches to personality. Evaluating Humanist and Narrative Approaches Hard to operationally define many of the concepts Many of their assumptions are untestable Added balance to the study of personality Encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology” Fostered new appreciation for resilience Table 12.2 The Major Influences on Personality {21E4AEA4-8DFA-4A89-87EB-49C32662AFE0}Psychodynamic Unconscious dynamics shape human motives, guilt, conflicts, and defenses. Genetic Children are born with particular temperaments, and most traits are highly influenced by genes. Environmental Learning, situations, and unique experiences affect which traits are encouraged and which genes are expressed. Parents Modify and shape a child’s temperament and genetic predispositions; affect gender roles, attitudes, and self-concept; affect the quality of the relationship with the child. Peer group Influences an individual’s values, behavior, ambitions, goals, etc. Situation Determines which behaviors are rewarded and which are punished or ignored, thereby shaping the expression or suppression of particular traits. Chance events May influence a person’s experiences and choices in unexpected ways, thus encouraging the development of some traits over others. Cultural Norms specify which traits are valued, affect basic notions of the self and personality, and shape behaviors from aggressiveness to altruism. Humanist Despite genetic, environmental, cultural, and psychodynamic influences, people can exercise free will to become the kind of person they want to be. Narrative Personality rests on the stories people create to explain their lives (e.g., whether they see themselves as victims or survivors); these stories can change. Which One? (1 of 2) The personality theorist who described the importance of peak experience was __________. Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Karen Horney Rollo May Which One? (2 of 2) The personality theorist who described the importance of peak experience was __________. Correct answer: Abraham Maslow Copyright