The Good Society: An Introduction to Comparative Politics

The Good Society, Third Edition Alan Draper | Ansil Ramsey Chapter 1 Comparative Politics and the Good Society Learning Objectives 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Learning Objectives 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. 1.5 Analyze criticisms of the capabilities approach. Introduction Good Societies Our potential is constrained not only by our innate talents but the kind of society we live in. LBJ: “It is the product of a hundred unseen forces playing upon a little infant, the child, and finally the man.” 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. Introduction Good Societies Dire circumstances can limit people regardless of their natural gifts. Premise of this textbook: some countries are better than others at creating conditions that permit citizens to realize their potential. 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. Introduction Comparative Politics Comparative politics examines why organized in different ways and what effects those differences may have. 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. Introduction Comparative Politics Example: In 2008, infant mortality rates were twice as high in Zimbabwe as in Botswana. Life expectancy was 15 years shorter Zimbabwe’s GDP per capita was $200 compared to almost $14K in Botswana. Why is quality of life so much better in Botswana? 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. Introduction Comparative Politics We can make other comparisons: Thailand and Ghana Thirty years ago they were roughly at the same developmental level, but now Thailand has progressed further and faster than Ghana. 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. Introduction Comparative Politics By making comparing these countries we can try to identify what it is that might explain such divergent outcomes in the quality of their citizens’ lives. We must search for ways in which they differ, such as policies their governments have followed or different historical legacies. 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. Introduction Comparative Politics Comparative politics enables us not only to compare different countries, but to appreciate what is distinctive about our own. Comparative politics is a subfield of political science and is distinct from International Relations. Comparative politics studies politics within countries while IR studies politics among them. 1.1 Define comparative politics and illustrate the value and usefulness of studying it. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics We compare all the time. However, comparative political analysis is different in that it uses systematic procedures. Formation of hypotheses: These statements present relationships that we expect to find among these variables. “If, then” – if a country’s wealth increases, then its citizens will be healthier. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Dependent variables What we are trying to explain. Independent variables What we believe explains the dependent variable. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Operationalization Finding specific, concrete alternatives to use in place of abstract concepts like wealth and health. Controls Hold other factors constant in order to see whether we still obtain the same results or if they were spurious due to other intervening factors. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Comparative Political Analysis: Does Gender Equality Help Girls Do Better in School? Problem Comparisons of girls and boys in different countries who took the same math test found that girls on average had lower scores than boys? Why? Socialization? 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Comparative Political Analysis: Does Gender Equality Help Girls Do Better in School? Methods and Hypothesis Recent study uses comparative analysis of 40 countries to answer whether sexist expectations influence girls’ performance. Found great variation in performance – big gaps to no gaps. Hypothesis: more gender equality (I) in a country the small the gender game in test scores (D). 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Comparative Political Analysis: Does Gender Equality Help Girls Do Better in School? Operationalizing Concepts: Define what it means to “be better at math” and “gender equality.” “math test scores” used results of a math test administered to 15 year olds in 40 countries in 2003. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Comparative Political Analysis: Does Gender Equality Help Girls Do Better in School? Operationalizing Concepts: Define what it means to “be better at math” and “gender equality.” Gender equality measured by using the World Economic Forum’s Gender Gap Index (GGI). 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Comparative Political Analysis: Does Gender Equality Help Girls Do Better in School? Operationalizing Concepts: Define what it means to “be better at math” and “gender equality.” The index measures economic, cultural and political opportunities for women as compared to those of men. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Comparative Political Analysis: Does Gender Equality Help Girls Do Better in School? Results: Confirmed the hypothesis. In countries where there is a large gender gap, such as Turkey, there is a large gap in math scores between boys and girls. In countries where there is gender equality, such as Sweden, the gap disappears. Why do you think this is so? 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Three methods to test hypotheses Case study Comparative cases method Comparing many countries instead of just a few or just one 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Value of Comparison Offers us insight into how countries’ political conditions differ and the consequences those differences have for them. Permits us to check our intuitions about a country’s politics by examining whether they apply in other circumstances. Permits us to check our intuitions about a country’s politics by examining whether they apply in other circumstances. 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. The Logic and Practice of Comparative Politics Value of Comparison Permits us to evaluate and form judgments that help us make sense of the world around us. Empirical and objective Normative and moral Helps us get to the heart of the question: What constitutes a good society, and why are some countries better than others at creating one? 1.2 Outline the steps involved in doing comparative political analysis. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH There are certain examples upon which we can all agree are not good societies: Society based on slavery Society where one group slaughters fellow citizens from a different ethnic or religious group. Society where thousands of children die from preventable disease. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH There are certain examples upon which we can all agree are not good societies: These are not hypothetical examples. They exist today. Thailand, Iraq, Sierra Leone We can agree that none of these constitute good societies. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH But what are general criteria we can use to determine what are good societies? What is the merit of using wealth and happiness as a criteria? 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH By the criterion of GDP per capita, Lichtenstein was the most successful in the world. Least successful, Democratic Republic of Congo. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH While GDPs do indicate countries that have money to send children to school rather than work, and provide other benefits to society, political leaders are often dissatisfied with this measure. Problem: treats money spent on desirable goods and services as equivalent to money spent on less desirable ones – example: cleaning up an oil spill. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH GDP treats money spent on prisons the same as money spent for education. Focus on growth alone may ignore its hidden costs. Example: China’s increase in economic growth, at the expense of increasing inequality, destructive environmental impacts, and corruption. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH Finally, may hide considerable differences in how money is distributed. Increases to only the incomes of the few at the top, or to the incomes of the many at the bottom? 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH GNP vs. GNH Economic development and wealth is important, but it is only a means to an end. Happiness as a goal of a good society. Wealth can help achieve this happiness. More is better only if it makes us happier. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH GNP vs. GNH Bhutan, located between China and India New constitution in 2008 Government programs judged according to the happiness they produce. Four pillars Economy, culture, environment, and good governance. Developed complex mathematical formulas for measuring happiness. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH GNP vs. GNH World Values Survey Investigated how happy people were in different countries. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Figure 1.3 Countries Ranked by Happiness Source: “Despite Frustrations Americans Are Pretty Darned Happy.” National Science Foundation Press Release, June 30, 2008. nsf.gov.www.nsf.gov/news/newsmedia/pr111725/pr111725.pdf Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH GNP vs. GNH There are good reasons to be skeptical of happiness as an indicator of the good society: The happiness standard suffers from many of the same flaws that afflict the wealth standard. Overlooks the different ways in which people find satisfaction. Genghis Khan example. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH GNP vs. GNH While happiness is a good thing, it is not the only thing. Sustainable environment; hardship and sacrifice Different cultures do not attach the same value to happiness. Happiness is also a function of expectations; depends heavily upon one’s reference group. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH In Brief: Criticisms of GNP and GNH as Measures of the Good Society GNP More wealth may not translate into better social conditions. GDP is not sensitive to issues of distribution. GDP devalues activity that is not bought and sold. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH In Brief: Criticisms of GNP and GNH as Measures of the Good Society GNH GDH discounts that people’s sense of satisfaction may depend more on their reference group or expectations than on their actual circumstances. GDH is indifferent to the ways people might find happiness. GDH ignores cultural differences in the approval or sanction given to happiness. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH So what is a good standard? Neither GDP nor GDH is satisfactory as a standard to evaluate government performance and the quality of life of a country’s citizens. 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Visions of the Good Society: GNP and GNH So what is a good standard? So what standard is appropriate by which to measure the good society? Most important goal of governments is to provide individuals with the freedom to develop their potential. Capabilities approach: a good society “ensures all individuals a set of basic resources that will equalize their chances to reach their full potential.” – Nussbaum 1.3 Analyze wealth and happiness as measures of the good society. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Precise concept/measurement required. Four dimensions that are essential to making people free to live the life they choose, which apply in all countries: Meet their physical needs. Live in safety. Make informed decisions. Exercise civil and political rights. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life In-Depth: Costa Rica: Doing More with Less In general, wealthier countries are healthier and have the lowest infant mortality rates. Costa Rica is an exception. Small democratic country; 4.5 million people in Central America; one of best infant mortality records at its income level and nearly matches the rates in the U.S. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life In-Depth: Costa Rica: Doing More with Less How do they do it? Government’s role in providing necessities for poor mothers and infants: safe drinking water, adequate nutrition, and basic health care for pregnant mothers and newborns. Has one of the oldest, most established democracies in the Americans. Competitive political parties and high voter turnout by peasants and workers. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life In-Depth: Costa Rica: Doing More with Less How do they do it? Government has been controlled by a political party whose leaders were determined to help the rural poor. Groups opposed to its policies were politically weak. Doctors, hospitals, and insurance companies were publicly controlled and funded, which weakened their ability to oppose the government’s policies. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Physical well-being Nourishment, health care, and housing – enough to support a long life. How to measure? Poverty? Not available across countries, and varies across cultures. Poor in U.S. might be rich in a third world country. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Infant mortality rates Newborns highly susceptible to poor diet, deadly disease, and extreme weather. In Sweden and Japan, fewer than 3 newborn babies die per 1,000 births. In Sierra Leone, there were 119 deaths for every 1,000 babies born in 2011. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Informed Decision Making Today, the ability to make choices to improve one’s quality of life depends on access to information and the skills to understand its meaning. India – right to information law Literate and numerate: without skills, individuals are “blind” and cannot make many occupational choices; taken advantage of by others. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Informed Decision Making Today, the ability to make choices to improve one’s quality of life depends on access to information and the skills to understand its meaning. A Quiet Revolution by Martha Chen – the lives of illiterate women in Bangladesh were changed when they learned to read. One way to assess informed decision making is to compare literacy rates across countries. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Safety Capabilities and the Quality of Life Safety Profound differences across countries in terms of security. Homicide rates are a good means to measure these differences in standard safety. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Safety War measures the impact of violent political conflicts. Example from the Congo: Only a fraction are combat-related; most of the loss of life occurred because war can ruin the economy and disrupt health care services. Produces starvation and disease. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Democracy Without influence over the laws that govern them, people cannot press for improvements in any of the other areas: physical well-being, safety, and education. Striking improvements in civil rights (such as right to public accommodations) that the state guarantees to all its citizens and in civil liberties (such as freedom of speech or assembly). 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Democracy Also improvements in political rights, such as voting and holding office. By 2000, almost all of the world’s people lived in independent countries, as opposed to colonies of others, and a majority of these countries have universal suffrage and multiparty elections. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Democracy Still, there are considerable differences across countries. Useful indexes to measure democracy Indexes do vary in terms of quality. Economic Intelligence Unit’s Index of Democracy Uses five categories to measure democratic robustness across countries on a scale of one to ten. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Caveats Four categories represent the minimum that people need to fulfill their potential and enhance their lives. And they may require tradeoffs. May not all be able to exist together at the same level at all times. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Caveats Goal of good society is to make it possible for each individual in a country to enjoy a high quality of life, and not just for the average quality to be high. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life Caveats This approach does not specify a particular set of economic, political, or social institutions that are necessary for a good society. This approach does not assert that it is the state’s responsibility to ensure that all individuals thrive. It is the role of the state to create conditions in which persons can choose a flourishing life. 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Capabilities and the Quality of Life In Brief: Operationalizing Capabilities Meeting physical needs: infant mortality rates Informed decision-making: literacy rates Safety: homicide rates Democracy: Index of Democracy 1.4 Define and apply the capabilities approach. Responding to Criticisms of the Capabilities Approach Many scholars and organizations have adopted the capabilities approach. UN report: “Fundamental to enlarging human choices is building capability: the range of things that people can do or be.” Critics: too idealistic; contrary to human nature. Another view: humans are selfish, but this is a good thing, according to some critics. 1.5 Analyze criticisms of the capabilities approach. Responding to Criticisms of the Capabilities Approach Cultural relativists believe that it is inappropriate to try to establish criteria for a good society that apply to all of the world’s countries. 1.5 Analyze criticisms of the capabilities approach. Responding to Criticisms of the Capabilities Approach But cultural relativism is not as innocent or impartial as it appears. Legitimizes the power of those who have triumphed over others in the conflict of prevailing social values. Taliban: banned education of girls Concept is difficult to apply with consistency. 1.5 Analyze criticisms of the capabilities approach. Conclusion Comparative politics examines why countries are organized in different ways and what consequences those differences may have. Proceeds systematically: forming hypotheses, operationally defining variables, selecting methods to test the hypotheses. Conclusion Methodical approach to answering the question: what is a good society? GNP vs. GNH? Capabilities approach: provides consistent standards to apply in making normative judgments among competing values within and between societies. Critical Thinking Questions What principles does your vision of a Good Society reflect? What prerequisites do you think the Good Society should include? Critical Thinking Questions We use concepts, such as democracy or freedom, all the time. Or we often say that workers in some country are more class conscious than workers in another, or that ethnic tensions are greater here than there. But operationally defining these concepts so they can be used in comparative political analysis is tricky and takes a great deal of imagination. Critical Thinking Questions How would you operationally define these concepts (democracy, freedom, class consciousness, ethnic tension) so they can be compared across countries? Critical Thinking Questions What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different comparative methods we reviewed: the case study approach that examines one country extensively; a paired country approach that tries to find countries that are similar to each other while other variables are held constant; Critical Thinking Questions What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different comparative methods we reviewed: or comparisons that involve many countries so analysts can test their hypothesis against many cases? Which method do you think is best and why? Critical Thinking Questions Even if we accept that wealth (GDP per capita) is not sufficient for the Good Society, do you think it is at least, necessary? What criteria do you believe should be used to evaluate how states perform?