The Good Society: An Introduction to Comparative Politics

The Good Society, Third Edition Alan Draper | Ansil Ramsey Chapter 2 The State Learning Objectives 2.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. 2.2 Define power and distinguish the different cultural, economic, and political forms it takes. 2.3 Define the state. Learning Objectives 2.4 Evaluate different perspectives that explain the rise of states. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. 2.6 Evaluate the performance of strong and weak states according to the standards of the good society. Introduction Good Societies Parable of the forest States have certain interests, such as raising revenue. 1.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. Introduction Good Societies They attempt to tame chaos in order to pursue those interests, but their efforts can sometimes create negatives as well. But in some cases, the state’s effort to plan, coordinate, and administer permits societies to achieve things they could not have done otherwise. 1.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. Introduction Good Societies Argument: The good society depends on a society’s institutional arrangements, and the most powerful institution of all is the state. 1.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. Introduction Good Societies Good society based on a set of defensible universal values: People should be able to meet their physical needs. People should be safe from harm. People should have the ability to make educated choices about how they live. 1.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. Introduction Good Societies Good society based on a set of defensible universal values: People should have civil and political rights in order to protect these conditions so they can freely develop their capabilities. States can promote conditions that develop people’s capabilities or impede them. 1.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. Introduction Good Societies It is important to understand the origins of the state and its different components: its legislative, executive, and judicial branches, its bureaucratic and military arms, and its subnational or federal levels. 1.1 Analyze the relationship between states and societies. Institutions and Power The degree to which countries meet the standards of the good society depends on their institutional arrangements. Institutions create and embody written and unwritten rules that constrain individuals’ behavior into patterned actions. Order and predictability Meaning and structure to our relationships Imagine driving a car with no rules. 1.2 Define power and illustrate the different cultural, economic, and political forms it takes. Institutions and Power Institutions exert power. Power is the ability to get people to do things that they would not have chosen to do on their own or to prevail in getting what you want in the presence of opposing claims. Authority is a form of power that has been accepted as right and proper by those who submit to it. 1.2 Define power and illustrate the different cultural, economic, and political forms it takes. Institutions and Power Cultural power exists when some people are able to convince others to adopt their values, ideas, and premises as their own. Economic power emanates from those who control critical scarce resources and are able to obtain compliance from those who need them. 1.2 Define power and illustrate the different cultural, economic, and political forms it takes. Institutions and Power Political power is grounded in coercion and control over the means of violence. The power institutions exert is based on control over the content of social beliefs, essential material resources, and the means of violence. 1.2 Define power and illustrate the different cultural, economic, and political forms it takes. The State Not all forms of power are created equal. Political power trumps all others. The institution that embodies political power is the state. Refers to a set of organizations imbued with sovereignty over a given area through its control of the means of violence. “One government, one land, one law, one gun.” 2.3 Define the state. The State Four distinct parts: The state as an organization: power belongs to the office, not the person. Sovereignty: The state has ultimate power over the population. Coercion and violence: The state has monopoly over the means of violence within its territory. Territoriality: The state’s power extends over a specific area with clear boundaries. 2.3 Define the state. The State Powers of states can be truly awesome. Groups struggle for control of the state and its powers. 2.3 Define the state. The State Groups that are successful in gaining control are said to form the government. Government refers to the group of leaders in charge of directing the state. Different from the state, which is a set of organizations imbued with sovereignty over a given area. The state is the car; the government is the driver. 2.3 Define the state. The State States are not all-powerful. May be challenged by other institutions: foreign governments, institutions or groups within their borders. 2.3 Define the state. The State In-Depth: Somalia–The Weightless of Statelessness Somalia has had no permanent national government since 1991. The criteria that define a state—one government, one land, one law, one gun—are absent there. 2.3 Define the state. The State In-Depth: Somalia–The Weightless of Statelessness The country is ablaze with competing armies, borders are porous, and many laws compete for supremacy. The Somalian state has not simply failed; it has disappeared. 2.3 Define the state. The Origins of States Modernization Theory Argues that states arose as a result of the increasing division of labor; need to solve coordination problems that came with society’s increasing complexity. Portrays states as benign and stabilizing; peaceful and rational. 2.4 Evaluate different perspectives that explain the rise of states. The Origins of States Marxist Theory Dominant class uses the state and its monopoly over the means of violence to impose its rule over subordinate classes. The state represents the repressive apparatus that the dominant class wields against other classes to cement its rule and exploit them. Narrow theory. 2.4 Evaluate different perspectives that explain the rise of states. The Origins of States War Theory States developed in response to the extractive necessities of war. 2.4 Evaluate different perspectives that explain the rise of states. Political Institutions Groups struggle for control of the state, but also for the nature of the state. 1787 Constitutional Convention: what will the state look like? Distribution of power within the state: groups seek to empower those parts of the state in which they have the most advantage. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Groups struggle for control of the state, but also for the nature of the state. The way in which power is distributed within a state is presented in its constitution. Constitutions are blueprints that display the state’s architecture; “power maps” which may or may not be accurate representations of power distributions. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Federal and Unitary Systems Unitary Systems Power is concentrated at the national level. Local levels of the state have little autonomous power to raise revenue, spend money, or make their own policies. All sovereignty resides at the top. China, France, and Japan are examples of unitary systems. More common than federal systems. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Federal and Unitary Systems Federal Systems Constitutions divide sovereignty between national and subnational levels of the state. Self-rule locally combined with shared rule at the national level. More fiscal independence. Control over their own administrative agencies. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Federal and Unitary Systems Federal Systems Found predominantly among large countries (U.S. and India). May be found in smaller countries with intense ethnic, religious, and linguistic cleavages. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions In Brief: Federal and Unitary Systems In federal political systems The central state shares sovereignty with lower political units of the states. Regional governments can raise their own revenue and make their own policy. Lower state units have their own officials, agencies, and administrative integrity. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions In Brief: Federal and Unitary Systems In unitary political systems Political power is concentrated at the national level. Subnational levels of the state are primarily administrative arms of the central government. Lower levels of the state do not have the power to levy taxes or make policy. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Political power is distributed vertically: national and subnational levels. Also distributed horizontally among different branches of the state: the legislature, executive, and judiciary. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Legislatures appear under different names in different countries: U.S. – Congress; Britain – Parliament; France – the National Assembly. They all do the same thing: they are assemblies that approve of policies on behalf of a larger political community that they represent. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Legislatures appear under different names in different countries: They do this in authoritarian countries, too, but offer participation without power. Example: China – the National People’s Congress only passes those bills proposed by the government and not a single bill from an individual deputy has ever been enacted. Legislatures in democracies are more than rubber stamps. They actually influence policy. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Most legislatures are unicameral, meaning they have one chamber. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature The bicameral structure (two chambers) of Congress, with a House of Representatives and a Senate, is atypical. Where bicameralism exists, each chamber is based on a different principle of representation. In U.S., the House is based on population, whereas the Senate has equal representation for each state. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature The bicameral structure (two chambers) of Congress, with a House of Representatives and a Senate, is atypical. Larger countries tend toward bicameralism; also more common in countries with federal systems. Australia and Germany also have bicameral legislatures. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Advantage of unicameral legislature: there is no second chamber to delay, veto, or amend bills that the first chamber has already passed. Advantage of bicameralism: it can offer a broader basis of representation than one chamber alone. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Another comparative dimension to legislatures: internal organization, especially committee systems. A strong committee system is a good indicator of a legislature’s power to influence policy. Clear jurisdiction and adequate resources permit their members to specialize. Congress’s committee system is exceptionally strong. Indicative of a very powerful legislative branch. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature In practice, most legislatures today are reactive, not proactive: they reject and modify bills, but do not often propose their own. Respond to the chief executive rather than setting their own priorities. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Why this decrease in influence? Increasing significance of foreign policy Growth in the scope of government and the bureaucracy Rising power of the media to portray politics in terms of personality Emergence of organized political parties that can deliver disciplined majorities for government 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Legislature Legislatures tend to be powerful When they have a strong committee system (expertise for legislators). When parties are weak (no disciplined legislative majorities). More so in some issue areas than in others. Social welfare policy – areas that directly touch their constituents. Less so in foreign policy and economic policy – dominated by the executive branch. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Executive The executive branch is supposed to elaborate, coordinate, and implement the legislature’s decisions. Energy center of government; agenda setter. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Executive Three distinct parts of the executive branch Core executive, which includes the ruling government. The bureaucracy, which is directly below the core executive and includes different departments and agencies. The military, which includes the armed forces. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Bureaucracy The center of the executive branch is the core executive. The core executive includes all the significant policy-making and coordinating actors in the executive branch, such as the president or prime minister, members of their Cabinet, their personal advisors, and senior civil servants. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Bureaucracy Apex – resolving disputes within it and setting priorities for it. Top of the core executive are its political leaders The head of state (represents the country) and the head of government (directs the executive branch). Positions can be one in the same (U.S.) or separated into two (Great Britain). 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Bureaucracy Top of the core executive are its political leaders Ministers come next – president’s or prime minister’s Cabinet 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Bureaucracy The core executive directs the bureaucracy. The bureaucracy is supposed to be an extension of the government in power and its political leadership. The bureaucrats execute policy in an impartial and professional way. But often the executive has a hard time imposing its will on the bureaucrats. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Bureaucracy The bureaucracy is supposed to be an extension of the government in power and its political leadership. Executive tries to get around this obstacle by strengthening personal staffs and increasing the number of political appointees who work in the bureaucracy. Spectrum: from many African states to Great Britain (cooperative loyalists vs. highly professional civil servants). 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions In Brief: The Bureaucracy According to Max Weber, an eminent German sociologist, the essential features of bureaucracies include: A division of labor in which people are given specific tasks to perform. A hierarchy in which there is a clear chain of command. A set of rules and regulations that govern the conduct of people in positions and limit their discretion. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Military The military is just one specialized department within the bureaucracy, but it is special because it embodies the essence of the state and because it controls the armed forces. Thus it can impose its will on other parts of the state. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Military Nature of relationship: Civilians control military budget, command structure, and promotion and assignment of commanders, but there is some deference to military self-rule. Military may also inject itself into certain policy debates. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Military Civilian control of military is more likely to exist in countries where both state and military institutions are strong. Most of the developed world manifests this situation, but in developing countries, states are weak and unable to maintain order. Military has more influence. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Military Civil-military relations can shift from the military having veto power over the government to the military actually taking over the government. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Judiciary The judiciary is a political institution that is, theoretically, above politics and outside of the policy-making process. Role is to interpret the laws; not make them. In authoritarian systems, the powers of the judiciary are very limited. Lacks independence and is subordinate to the executive. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Judiciary The judiciary enjoys more autonomy and political power in democracies. Judicial review, which empowers courts to nullify and invalidate laws that they believe violate the constitution. Controversial. Independence of justices is important. Depends on how members are selected, how long they have tenure, and how difficult it is to remove them from the bench. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Judiciary The judiciary is a political institution that is, theoretically, above politics and outside of the policy-making process. Role is to interpret the laws; not make them. In authoritarian systems, the powers of the judiciary are very limited. Lacks independence and is subordinate to the executive. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Judiciary The judiciary enjoys more autonomy and political power in democracies. Judicial review, which empowers courts to nullify and invalidate laws that they believe violate the constitution. Controversial. Independence of justices is important. Depends on how members are selected, how long they have tenure, and how difficult it is to remove them from the bench. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Judiciary Judicialization of politics–political disputes are settled in courtrooms rather than legislatures. Intervention into politics Italian judges in the 1990s–Christian Democratic Party– charges of corruption. U.S. Supreme Court ruling in the 2000 Bush–Gore presidential election. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions The Judiciary Judicialization of politics–political disputes are settled in courtrooms rather than legislatures. Intervention into politics 2004 presidential election in the Ukraine: Supreme Court nullified the results and mandated new elections that produced a different winner. Policy makers increasingly legislate in the shadow of the courts. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Problem Do people live better under one set of institutions than another? 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Lijphart’s dichotomy Majoritarian democracies (unitary system; unicameral legislature; weak courts; strong core executives) vs. consensus democracies (federal systems, bicameral legislatures, courts with judicial review, weak core executives). 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? So what? Do people live better under majoritarian- versus consensus-oriented institutions? 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Methods and Hypotheses Lijphart ranked selected democracies according to the degree that their institutions conformed to these two models and then statistically compared their economic, political, and social performance. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Methods and Hypotheses He hypothesized that consensus democracies would produce better results because their policies have a broader base of support and not as prone to abrupt policy shifts. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Operationalizing Concepts Some of his proxies to test the relative economic performance of majoritarian and consensus democracies included average annual growth in GDP, average annual rates of inflation, and unemployment levels. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Operationalizing Concepts His measures of political performance were turnout rates in elections, number of women holding national political office, and survey data on citizen satisfaction with democracy in their country. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Operationalizing Concepts Measures of social performance included welfare state expenditures, foreign aid contributions, pollution levels, and prison incarceration rates. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Results He found that consensus democracies performed better socially and politically, but there was no difference on economic performance. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Results Consensus democracies did not have more economic growth or lower unemployment than majoritarian democracies, although they (consensus democracies) did a better job keeping inflation in check. 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Political Institutions Comparative Political Analysis: Does the Design of Political Institutions Make a Difference in People’s Lives? Results Discussion: Were the indicators appropriate? Other tests needed? Why do you think consensus democracies did better on the political and social indicators? 2.5 Compare the different ways states are organized. Weak States, Strong States, and the Good Society States differ in how power is distributed to them and in effectiveness. Weak states lack both autonomy and capacity, and are captured by narrow interests. This can have lethal results. Strong states have both autonomy and capacity, and are not captured by social interests. Policy makers can act independently. Fund for Peace Failed States Index 2.6 Evaluate the performance of strong and weak states according to the standards of the good society. Weak States, Strong States, and the Good Society Physical Well-being A good society meets the physical needs of its citizens. People should be fed, sheltered, and healthy. Infant mortality rates are the best way to measure this. The quality of the state appears to matter when it comes to meeting people’s physical needs. 2.6 Evaluate the performance of strong and weak states according to the standards of the good society. Weak States, Strong States, and the Good Society Informed Decision Making Good societies equip their citizens with skills to make informed decisions about their lives. Literacy rates are the best way to measure this. Citizens can read and write. 2.6 Evaluate the performance of strong and weak states according to the standards of the good society. Weak States, Strong States, and the Good Society Safety In a good society, citizens are safe from violence. Countries listed “on alert” for state weakness are wracked with civil conflict. Homicide rates are another good indicator. Citizens in the weakest countries suffer most from both political and everyday violence. 2.6 Evaluate the performance of strong and weak states according to the standards of the good society. Weak States, Strong States, and the Good Society Democracy The quality of the state is correlated with the form of government. Democratic vs. authoritarian political systems Stable countries scored highest on the Democracy Index. Democracies have stronger states than do their authoritarian counterparts. 2.6 Evaluate the performance of strong and weak states according to the standards of the good society. Conclusion The state is the supreme authority within a country. The modern state emerged in response to the insecurity of the international system. The form the states take is not neutral or innocent in its effects. There are winners and losers depending upon these arrangements. Conclusion Political actors try to shape how power is distributed because their success in influencing policy depends on the state’s structure. Critical Thinking Questions The authors argued at the beginning of the chapter that power takes three forms: economic, political and ideological. Are these three forms of power equal? What claims for preeminence can be made about each of them? Critical Thinking Questions Do states promote individual’s capabilities or restrict them? If your country was just emerging and was writing a constitution, how would you organize your political institutions? What judicial, legislative, federal, and executive arrangements would you create and why? Critical Thinking Questions Over time, the legislative branch has lost ground to the executive in almost all countries. Why has this happened and is this state of affairs constructive or harmful? Critical Thinking Questions Since the military has all the guns, why don’t they take over governments more frequently? Why does the military accept civilian control in some countries while it is reluctant to consent to it in others?