Ch06 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics

Chapter 6 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics Social Constructionist approach—review of what this means; context of personality characteristics Social Factors related to size of gender differences: Gender differences largest when other people are present Gender differences are largest when gender is prominent and other shared roles are minimized Gender differences are largest when the behavior requires specific gender-related skills. Communication Patterns Verbal Communication Talkativeness—Males more talkative than females. Study by Spender: studied pairs of faculty members in conversation. Man spoke more than women. Men believed they did not have a fair share of conversation Interruptions—amount of gender difference depends on operational definition used—exactly how variable will be measured Successful interruption: takes over conversation, intrusive. Men more than women. Interruption: friendly comments in response to person talking, along with successful interruptions. Example: ”uh huh” Less obvious gender differences Status—power may explain interruptions in conversation Studies suggest men interrupt more than women when conversing with strangers and in competitive task settings. Language Style: subtle differences found. Men more likely to curse, more obscene words. Women use disclaimers more when talk with men, less often with women. Men rarely use “I’m not sure”, “I suppose”. Depends on social setting. The Content of Language: more similarities than difference found in study of college students asked to report on topics used. (talking about sports different) Study by Wheelan and Verdi—professionals in work roles—observed at conference.men and women found to be similar in nature of verbal contributions to discussion groups. Gender differences may become smaller as conversations are longer. Nonverbal Communication: communication doesn’t use words---eye movements, tone of voice, facial expression, distance from others when talking. Transmit important social messages Personal Space: invisible boundary around each person. Women have smaller personal space-zones than men; sit closer together. People in high status occupations occupy larger physical spaces than low status. Body Posture: differences develop early in life. Females keep legs together arms and hands close to body. Males sit and stand with legs and arms apart. Men look relaxed, women tense postures Gaze: females gaze more at person speaking with than males. (this difference found in childhood). People gaze at females more than at males. Uncommon to find prolonged eye contact between 2 men. Facial Expression: women smile more than men do. Social implications—smiling, and other social responses have an effect on person receiving positive messages and may produce feelings of competence in person. Men not smiling in response to female talking—feels less confidence Study by Hall and Halberstadt: social tension strongest predictor of smiling in women—smile when feel uncomfortable in social setting. Judging adults’ facial expressions—male photos thought to show more anger than female, angry female thought to be showing more fear Decoding Ability: competence in figuring out what emotion person is feeling based on nonverbal behavior. Reviews of research show that females more likely than males to decode nonverbal accurately. Difference found from infancy—girls better at visual discrimination of adults’ facial expression. Gender differences found in decoding emotions from vocal cues—with fear, happiness and sadness. No difference with anger. Individual Differences in Communications Styles: expansivness: people rated as more masculine, rated as more expansive. Sit with legs apart, walk with heavy step and speak loudly. Feminine style more self-contained and quiet Potential Explanations for Gender Differences in Communication Power and Social Status Explanations: men have more power and social status, so able to talk longer, use more space, and don’t need to smile. Less powerful people listen, use disclaimers, and should smile. LaFrance and Henley—looked for why gender difference in decoding ability: low status ind.need to be attentive to powerful ind so can respond appropriately. In US culture—men generally assigned dominant status, with more power than women. Men use more nonverbal patterns characteristic of bosses; women in position of submissive assistant Social Learning Explanations: Judith Hall: in general, the more powerful students found to be more skilled at decoding facial expressions. Culture provides roles, expectations and socialization experiences teach how to communicate. Reinforced for using nonverbal behavior typical of own gender, punished for non-typical behavior. Girls notice females smile more often—gains social approval. Boys criticized if not “masculine”. Girls learn supposed to pay attention to emotions, so develop sensitivity to facial expressions, to look out for others’ well being, to smile Conclusions: both theories explain gender difference. Characteristics Related to Helping and Caring Altruism-provide unselfish help to others in need w/out reward Danger—men more likely to help; and if task requires expertise Nature of Interpersonal Relationship—real life setting—women more helpful, and likely to “Talk over with friend” Social Role—shared expectations from culture about behavior. Gender differences from social roles men/women occupy. Expectations about women likely to take care of and be responsible to children. Men—larger, stronger—perform activities needing physical strength Nurturance—gives care to another, especially younger or less competent Obvious vs. Ambiguous Situations—gender similarities Empathy—understand emotion another is feeling, and when you experience same emotion 1.Females and males are equally empathic when the operational definition requires physiological measures. 2.Females and males are equally empathic when the operational definition requires nonverbal measures. 3.Females are more empathic than males when the operational definition is based on self-report. Friendship What friends do—similar for men/women; just talk; satisfaction also similar. Ideas similar on Intimacy—emotional expressiveness, communication skills, unconditional support and trust. most important is self-disclosure—reveal information about self. Other studies suggest women value more than men—and that women more self-disclosing. Women value talking about feelings more, greater training in emotions, gender related norms: men not supposed to talk about private feelings, esp with other men. Characteristics Related to Aggression and Power Aggression: behavior directed toward another with intention of doing harm Gender and Aggression: The Social Constructionists’ Concerns Physical Aggression Verbal Aggression Overt Aggression Versus Relational Aggression Overt Aggression Relational Aggression Preschoolers Cross-cultural Research Crime Rates Gender and Aggression: Other Important Factors 1. Gender differences are relatively large when aggression is measured in terms of self-report. 2. Gender differences are relatively large when measuring spontaneous aggression. 3. Gender differences are relatively large when the individuals know each other. The Myth of the Nonaggressive Female 1. If women see themselves as weak and nonaggressive, they may believe that they cannot defend themselves against men’s aggression. 2. Because competitiveness is associated with aggression, women may be denied access to professions that value competition. 3. Aggressiveness may be seen as normal for males, so men may choose not to inhibit their aggressive tendencies. Gender and Aggression: The Social Constructionists’ Concerns Considered a male characteristic—hit, shoot others. Each culture devised own set of lenses to view aggression, and how it is defined. Aggression Intended to hurt someone, physical or verbal Physical Aggression—direct harm through physical action Age 2—boys show higher levels of physical aggression Preschool –differences shown—continue into adulthood—SES and cultures Verbal Aggression—hostile remarks, injure self esteem. Most likely girls Overt Aggression Versus Relational Aggression Overt Aggression—aggression that physically harms or threatens harm Relational Aggression—harms or threatens harm to others through intentionally manipulating friendship. Spread lies, exclude from a group. Threatens interpersonal relationships. Crick study: boys higher in overt aggression, girls in relational Exclude peer from play group, spread malicious rumors, gossip about her Girls more likely than boys to be victims of relational aggression Gender difference in how children display aggression so striking even preschool child aware of it Cross cultural study—females likely to use relational or verbal indirect aggression, and may be more aggressive on these measures. Aggression in boys associated with rejection by peers; girls use relational aggression tend to be popular and powerful within peer group Suzanne Rose 2004 strategic use of relational aggression may serve to maintain social dominance as well as to display superiority Sex segregation-- children interact with others of same sex. Children learn to harm others in ways that damage the social goal of same-sex peers. Boys damage victim’s dominance in peer group; girls damage close relationship and feelings of social inclusion Characteristics Related to Aggression and Power Gender and Aggression: Other Important Factors 1. Gender differences are relatively large when aggression is measured in terms of self-report. 2. Gender differences are relatively large when measuring spontaneous aggression. 3. Gender differences are relatively large when the individuals know each other. Crime Rates—index of physical aggression—men consistently more likely to be offenders in every category of criminal behavior. Overt more harmful than physical. Men account for 73% violent crime in US. 84% in Canada Rates of women in prison climbing—drug-related offenses The Myth of the Nonaggressive Female 1. If women see themselves as weak and nonaggressive, they may believe that they cannot defend themselves against men’s aggression. 2. Because competitiveness is associated with aggression, women may be denied access to professions that value competition. 3. Aggressiveness may be seen as normal for males, so men may choose not to inhibit their aggressive tendencies. Biological and environmental influences contribute to gender differences in aggression Biological: gender diff emerge early and across cultures. Animal studies suggest sex hormone testosterone plays role—in animal aggression Human research—mixed results Meta-analysis by Angela Book 2001 weak, postive correlation testosterone and aggressive behavior Causal direction either way----increasing testosterone lead to aggression; acting aggressively leads to rise in T level Environmental factors: more important in producing gender diff in aggression Parents, teachers, peers less tolerant of aggressive-acting out behaviors in girls Girls expect more guilt, more peer and parental disapproval for overt aggression, and receive fewer material gains for aggression than do boys. Parents encourage boys physical play and use of gender-typical toys such as guns—promotes aggression. Rougher, dominance-oriented play of boys’ groups may contribute to maintenance of higher aggression levels in boys Toys and games marketed for boys facilitate aggression When video game is violent—both boys and girls showed more aggression after Video games associated with popularity in boys—not in girls.