Ch06 Waston

J.B. Watson (1878-1958) B.Watson J.B. Watson is regarded as the founder of the school of behaviorism. He was born in 1878 and died in 1958. He began as a student of philosophy at the University of Chicago, but later turned to psychology. He taught for a number of years at Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore USA, where he set up his animal laboratories. Later he shifted to the corporate world and offered advice to industry relating to advertising and marketing. Watson taught that psychology should ignore consciousness and concentrate on concrete facts: psychology. This was one of the founding principles of the behaviorists’ approach. He further said that psychologists must discard all reference to consciousness and must only look at behavior of animals and man. Because of his stress on behavior to the neglect of consciousness, he called himself a behaviorist. He was the first one to proclaim himself as a behaviorist. His methodology revolutionized the subject of psychology giving a new outlook to it. As consciousness was no more regarded as the concrete method of gaining knowledge, therefore, psychology focused merely on factual evidences and observable phenomena after the advent of this school. A measure of how seriously his appeal was taken by his professional colleagues is that he was elected as the President of American Psychological Association. In one of his books, entitled “Behavior,” he enumerated what behaviorism is all about in psychology. As the functionalists and the structuralists had defined psychology as the study of consciousness, Watson defined, as opposed to them, psychology as the science of behavior. Behavior of animals and humans was in his view what needed to be studied for an understanding of psychology. Furthermore, Watson asserted that psychologists should use only objective, experimental methods and should not use introspection as a method. He said that the aim of the study of psychology should be to provide prediction and control of behavior. This is the basic aim of behaviorism. Behaviorists tend to develop methods and techniques to control and predict human behavior in order to get the most out of them. Behaviorism emerged in times when the industrial revolution took place. At that moment in the history of mankind, the focus was on increasing the productivity of workforce. According to Watsonian behaviorism, behavior can be studied in terms of stimulus-response patterns. This means, that a stimulus is received by organism and it responds. For example, when someone touches a hot object, he immediately withdraws his hand from the object. In other words, the hotness of the object serves as the stimulus while the withdrawing action of the individual is his or her response to the stimulus. Watson therefore stated that there is nothing mysterious in this action and reaction and all of it could be explained in simple physiological terms. Watson denied the value of introspection as data for psychology but said that a “verbal report,” may be obtained from the subject after the experiment. For example, if an individual is placed in a series of experiments, he may then be asked about the feelings and the emotions that he faced during the experiments. It is different from introspection in the sense that here the report is based on the circumstances that have been artificially created for the experiment. Therefore, verbal report, in view of Watson may be a source of information for psychologists, but he clearly denied the introspection as a means. One of the important contributions of Watson is that in his opinion, thinking is nothing but “implicit behavior.” For example, when an individual manipulates images in his mind, thinking takes place. The individual relates these images together forming an explanation for the phenomenon that he is trying to study. Therefore thinking is also a kind of behavior. Watson agreed with the viewpoint of Ivan Pavlov about learning and said that we learn according to the laws of conditioning as given by Pavlov. Watson suggested that memory and images are nothing but sensory activities in the brain. This again refers to the study of behaviorism as a physiological phenomenon rather than a mysterious one. He said that the sensory activities of the brain can be classified as “molecular behavior.” Watson further proclaimed that by controlling the environment of an organism we could control and predict its behavior. This is known as environmentalism, that organism is affected by its environment. It is similar to the idea of Tabula Rasa given by John Locke. According to Locke, the mind of a new born baby is like a clean slate which is written upon by the surrounding environment. Watson’s contribution to psychology was one of the major developments in the study of psychology. NEO-BEHAVIOURISTS Neo-Behaviourists are psychologists who adopted the line of thinking and methodology of Watson, but were born or worked after Watson. Watsonian behaviourism gave a new direction to the science of psychology. The old method of introspection and speculation as a means of information for psychology was rejected and a more scientific outlook was adopted. Only concrete facts were considered which were observable. Therefore, behaviourism became very much as the heart of psychological thought. Neobehaviourists followed the Watsonian line of thinking although they were born after Watson. Clark Hull The first neo-behaviourist was Clark Hull who was born in 1884 and died in 1952. He was an engineer and a mathematician but later turned into a psychologist. He taught at the University of Wisconsin. Hull attended Koffka’s lecture on Gestalt psychology at Wisconsin University and was impressed with the Gestalt School. He had also read Pavlov’s English translation of “Conditioned Reflexes,” and liked it very much. His explanation of human behaviour therefore reflects both the Gestalt and the Pavlovian points of view. Since Clark Hull was basically a mathematician, he aimed at expressing his views in mathematical terms very precisely. He gave a mathematical equation which explained his view point. The equation is as follows: SER= D x V x K x SHR Where: SER, is behaviour D, is drive, our need within V, is Valence or stimulus intensity K, is incentive, motivation SHR is habit Therefore, according to Hull, behaviour is dependent upon drive, valance, incentive and habit. Since Hull was a behaviourist he tried to simplify behaviour and according to him, as a person acts in a certain manner or behaves in a certain manner, the driving forces behind it are D, V, K and SHR. Drive according to Hull is the need inside a person. A person may want to achieve a certain goal, reach a target or perhaps want to have some possession for him. All these things constitute the drive inside the person are expressed as D in Hull’s equation. V is the intensity of the stimulus that governs certain behaviour. In other words, it is how strongly the stimulus is registered by the sense organs of the body. K is the incentive or the motivation. It is the target or the reward that the individual or the subject aims at. It serves as the incentive for the subject to behave in a certain manner which would allow him to reach the reward. The last component of Hull’s equation of behaviour is SHR, which is the habit that a person develops. Behaviourists had given the explanations for why habits are developed. Hull carried forward their ideas and said that habits also serve in determining how a person behaves. In simple terms behaviour is the result of many factors that include D: drive, V: attraction or repulsion, K: motivation and habit. As it can be seen, his theory rests mainly on looking at performance, on observing overall overt behaviour and that is why he is classified as a behaviourist. Edward Tolman Edward Tolman was another American, who was born in 1886 and died in 1961. He studied at Harvard and was impressed by William James and Watson. Tolman believed that psychology is a science of behaviour and psychologists should concentrate on the study of behaviour only and in addition to it he said that behaviour has a “purpose.” That is why he is also called a “purposive behaviourist.” He defined behaviour in a precise equation that is: B= f (S, A) Where: B is behaviour f is the function of S is situation variables A is antecedent variables This means that behaviour is a function of situational variables and antecedent variables. A situational variable is any variable that is a part of the situation/environment that affects a subject’s behaviour in a way, for example the hot or cold weather. An antecedent variable is a variable that is a part of the subject such as age, gender etc. and it impacts its behaviour. Therefore, his explanation of behaviour was very precise. Because of his theory of explanation of behaviour, Tolman is classified as a neo-behaviourist. Edwin Gutherie Edwin Gutherie was also a prominent neo-behaviourist who was born in 1886 and died in 1960. Unlike his contemporary psychologists, Gutherie was less an experimentalist and more an observer. Based upon his observations, he put forward the view that behaviour can be predicted and controlled by the “law of recency,” given by Thorndike, which states that “the last act is most likely to be repeated.” Therefore, behaviourism to Gutherie is repetition of the “last act.” Thorndike proposed his law of recency based on experiments that he conducted on cats. Therefore, the basis of Gutherie’s thoughts resides in experimentalism. Gutherie had also read Freud and was impressed by his method of treatment of mental disorders. Based upon his behaviourist outlook, Gutherie developed a theory of neurosis in his book “The Psychology of Human Conflict” and because of this he may be regarded as one of the first behaviourist psychotherapists. He explained neurosis to be caused due to conflict of responses. NEO-BEHAVIORISTS B.F. Skinner One of the most prominent psychologists, who was impressed by Watsonian behaviourism on the one hand and Pavlovian conditioning on the other was another American B.F. Skinner, born in the year 1904 and died in 1990. He worked at Harvard University and carried on his experiments on animals, writing many books and articles. His main research work is now known by the title of Instrumental or Operant Conditioning. Working on white rats and pigeons, in specially devised cages, known as Skinner boxes he observed how animals learn. He therefore adopted an experimental method of learning. He also purported the idea of learning by conditioning but his conditioning was different from that of Pavlov. Later Pavlov’s conditioning came to be known as classical conditioning while Skinner’s conditioning was called instrumental or operant conditioning. One of the contributions of B.F. Skinner is that he distinguished between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, where positive reinforcement is when a response is positively rewarded and negative reinforcement is when a response is negatively rewarded or punished. In other words, if a subject, who is hungry, is rewarded on its act with food, the reinforcement is positive. On the other hand, if a subject is punished on his or her act but being beaten up or being subjected to some kind of torture, or even a less sever punishment such as denial of food, the reinforcement given to him according to Skinner is negative reinforcement. According to Skinner, learning takes place by four schedules of reinforcement: i. Fixed ratio schedule ii. Variable ratio schedule iii. Fixed interval schedule iv. Variable interval schedule Reinforcement is given to the subjects according to these scales. Fixed ratio is, when reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. Variable ratio is when reinforcement is given after variable number of responses. Fixed interval is reinforcement is given after a fixed time period. Variable interval is when reinforcement is given after a variable time interval. Based upon his experiments he proposed in his famous book: “Beyond Freedom and Dignity” that change in whole society is necessary for the betterment. Karl Lashley An important contributor to the behaviourist school is Karl Lashley, born in 1890 and died in 1958. He was a pupil of Watson. Adopting from Watson, he proposed that psychology is a science of behaviour and behaviour is the result of activity of the cerebral cortex, a part of the brain. This is one of his greatest contributions in psychology which lead to the development of two principles given by Lashley himself. Principle of equi-potentiality:According to Lashley, one part of the cortex is the same as another part. Therefore, even if one part is cut off, the brain activity still takes place. In other words, both parts of the cortex have equal potential to make the brain work properly. Principle of mass action: He also proposed that the more the cortex in mass, the better the learning and called it the “principle of mass action.” So Lashley showed that behaviour and more precisely learning is a function of the activity of the cortex. Donald Hebb Donald Hebb was a Canadian psychologist, who showed that, when a part of the human brain was removed accidentally, it did not affect a person’s IQ. It is similar to Lashley’s principle of equi-potentiality which stated that if one part of the cortex is removed, the brain continues to function as with the full cortex. Harvey Harlow Another psychologist Harvey Harlow, of University of Wisconsin showed that curiosity, exploration and manipulation effect animal learning. This meant that if a subject is curious about certain phenomenon, it would have a different learning pattern as compared to other subjects. Further, exploration and manipulation also affect learning. Hobart Mowrer Hobart Mowrer at the University of Illinois showed that factors such as hope and disappointment influence learning. Behaviourism slowly had introduced such mentalistic concepts as curiosity, hope, disappointment, etc. So behaviourism slowly moved away from dealing with purely observational data and started looking into psychological factors.