Psychology Review Sheet

Psychology Review for exam Vocab Term Definition of Term Example Psychology Science used to understand behavior and mental processes Psychology explains our personalities and actions. Biological Psychology Study of how biological processes in the brain and other organs affect, and are affected by, behavior and mental processes. Eating certain foods changes the chemical interactions within and between nerve cells in your brain, thereby possibly inducing drowsiness. Developmental Psychologists They study changes in behavior and mentally that occurs from birth until old age and understands causes and effects of them. How you think when you graduate from elementary school is different from the way you think after graduating college. Cognitive Psychologists They study mental processes underlying judgment, decision making, problem solving, imagining, and other aspects of human thought. How does the brain translate light into the experience of sight? Personality Psychologists They study what makes a person different from another. Why do some people prefer red rather then pink? Clinical and Counseling Psychologists They study abnormal behavior and mental processes, what causes them and how to treat them. How well and why a treat works. Is depression heredity? What is its best treatment? Community Psychologists They try prevent psychological disorders and treat people in their community. Lora and her family in Hermosa are having constant arguments, they are all going to see one psychologists to solve their problem. Social Psychologists They study how people influence one another and interactions between people in groups. Mariana’s therapist observes the way she acts at school with her friends and at home with her family. Industrial/Organizational Pyschologits They study on ways to increase productivity and satisfaction of worker and employee. The manager of la Pasadita wants more productivity but doesn’t want to put too much pressure on the employees. Quantative Psychologists They use statistical tools to analyze data collected by psychologists working on other subfields. What percentage of clients improve behavior after being treated? Biological Approach This approach assumes that biological factors such as genetics, brain activity, or hormonal activity are the most important factors determining behavior and mental processes. People whose ancestors suffered from depression might have abnormal levels of certain chemicals important to mood. Evolutionary Approach This approach assumes that human and animal behavior is the result of evolution through natural selection. Running away from threats. Psychodynamic Approach This approach emphasizes the interplay of the unconscious mental processes in determining human thought, feelings, and behavior. Surgeons express aggressive instincts in a manner that is accepted by society. Behavior Approach An approach to psychology emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has learned, especially from rewards and punishments. People become doctors only because of the salary received, positions gained, or satisfaction. Cognitive Approach A way of looking at human behavior that emphasizes research on how the brain takes information, creates perceptions, forms and retrieves memories, processes information, and generates integrated patterns of action. Study of why people try to fight terrorists on the 9-11 attacks rather than just panic. Humanistic Approach Approach to Psychology that assumes people control their behavior based on their perceptions of the world. People have the potential of doing things; they just got to look forward to it. culture Accumulation of values, rules of behavior, forms of expression, religious beliefs, and so on, for a group people who share a common language and environment. There’s individualists and collectivists. Name of Important Person What this person is known for Impact on Psychology Sigmund Freud He developed a theory of personality based on the assumption that the unconscious could influence people’s behavior. He is one of the most important psychologists recognized today. Wilhelm Wunt With his technique of introspection, he documented “quality” and “intensity” as elements of sensation. William James He investigated how consciousness works to help people adapt to their environment, his technique became known as functionalism. John B. Watson He believed psychologists should observe people’s behavioral reaction to stimuli without making inferences about consciousness. He inspired many psychologists to adopt behaviorism as the method of choice for scientific research in psychology. Research in Psychology Vocab Term Definition Of Term Example Hypothesis Scientific research, a prediction stated as a specific testable proposition about a phenomenon. Operational Definition Help make easier to understand and evaluate the hypothesis. Variables Specific factors or characteristics that are manipulated and measured in research. Data Numbers represent client improvement or whatever other variables are of interest. Theory Set of statements to predict. Naturalistic Observations Process of watching without interfering as behaviors occurs in the natural environment. Case Studies Examination of behavior or mental processes in a particular individual group/ situations. Surveys Researchers use interviews/ questions to ask people about their behavior. Correlational Studies Examine relationships between variables in order to describe research data more fully to test predictions, and evaluate theories. Experiments Tests the hypothesis. Experimental Group Receives experimental treatment. Control Group Receives no treatment. (Stays the same) Independent Variable Controlled variable by experimenter. Dependant Variable Depends on independent variable. Confoundry Variable Interference with activity in the independent/ dependant variables. Random Variables Uncontrolled, sometimes uncontrollable. Random Assignments Distributes the impact of uncontrolled variable randomly equally across groups. Placebo Treatment that contains nothing known to be hopeful but produces benefits because a person’s beliefs will be beneficial. Sugar Pill Experimental Bias Unintentional effect that experimenters may exert on their results. Double-Blind Design To prevent experimenters bias from confiding results. Sampling Process of selecting participants for research. Random Sampling Every member of population to be studied would have an equal chance of being chosen. Biased Sample Any selection produced that does not have this equal chance. Behavioral Genetics Study of how genes and environments affect behavior. Behavioral Statistics Numbers describe and summarize a set of research data. Inferential Statistics Set of mathematical procedures that help researchers infer what their data might mean. Mode The number that occurs the most. 6365896566548. Mode=6 Median Halfway point in a set of data. 1234567. Median=4 Mean Average of a set. 12345. Mean=3 Range Difference between highest and lowest scores in set. 456789. Range=5 Standard Deviation (SD) Measures the average difference between each score the mean of data set. Correlation Degree to which one variable is related to another. Correlation Coefficient Statistic summarizes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Statistically Significant Term used to describe research results when the outcome of statistical test indicates that the probability of those results occurring by chance is small. Authors of Important Study Basics of What Was Done Lesson(s) learned from the study Francine Shapiro Developed a treatment method she calls “eye movement desensitization and reprocessing“ (EMDR) Douglas Biklen Promoted a procedure called “facilitated communication” (FC) Helps people with severe autistic disorder use of language for the first time. Biological Basis Words Definitions Examples Biological psychology Study of cells and organs of the body and the physical and chemical changes involved in behavior andmental processes It is here that we begin to consider the relationship between your body and your mind, your brain and your behavior Input Receive information The sound of the alarm clock is conveyed toyour rain by your ears Process Integrate that information with past experiences Your brin knows from past experiences that it is time ot get up Output Guide actions Your brain directs the muscles of your arm and hand to reach out and shut off the alarm clock Neurons Are cells that are specialized to rapidly respond to singanls and quickly send signals of their own Glial Hlds neurons together Means glue Glial cells Also help neurons communicate by directing their groth, keeping their chemical environment sable providing energy, secreting chemaicls to help restore damage, and even responding to singals from neurons Without glial clls, neurons coulld not fnction Outer membrane Acts like a fine screen, letting some substances pass in and out while bloking others` Cell body Which contains a nucleus Only red blood cells have no neclus Nucelus Carries the genetic information that determines how a cell will runction Mitochondria Are structures that turn oxygen and glucose into energy Axons Are the fibers that carry signals away from the cell body, ooout to where communication occur with other neurons Like the axon that sends signals from your spinal cord all the way down to your big toe Dendrites Are the fibers that fecieve singls from the sxons of other neurons and crry those singls to the cell body Axons carry signals away from the cell body, where as dendrites detect signals from other cells Synapse The tiny gap between neurons across which they communicate Semipermeable barrier Lets some chemical molecules pass through but blocks others Polarized Inside of cell is more slightly negative then the outside Electrochemaical potential Which drives the positively charged molecules toward the inside of the cell Channels Distributed along the axon and dendrites and acts as gates that can be opened or closed Depolarized Allowing positively charged molescules to rush in Action potential An aburpt wave of electrochemical changes traveling dwon an axon when a neuron gets depolarized The cell either fires at frll strength or it dows not fire at all Myelin Is a fatty substacce that wraps around some axons and speeds action potentials Larger myelinated cells are usually found in parts of the nervous system that carry the most urgently needed information Refractory period During which the neuron cannot fire As the positively chargd molecules are pumped back outside the membane, the cell returns to its original polarized state Neurotransmitter Chemicals that assists in the transfer of signals from one neuron to another These chemicals are stored in little “bags” called vesicles Vesicles “bags” that hold chemicals in them At the tips of axons Receptors Site on the surface of a cell that aslws only one type of neurotransmitter to fit into it, triggering ac hemicl response tha may lead o an action potential Like a puzzle piece fitting into its proper place Postsynaptic potential The change in the membrane potential of a neuron that has recived stimulation from another nerron Make the cell either more likely or less likely to fire Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) Lead the neuron to fire an action potential Inhibitory postsynaptic potenial (IPSP) Makes it less likely that the neuron will fire an action potential Neural networks Neurons that operate together to perform complex functions Sensory systems The parts of the nervous system that provide information about the environment Hearing, vision, taste, smell, and touch Motor systems Which are the parts of the nervous system that influence muscles and other organs to respond to the environment Peripheral nervous system(PNS) The parts of the nervous system not housed in bone Carries out sensory and motor functions Central nervous system (CNS) Is the part encased in bone Including the brain and the spinal cord Somatic nervous system Transmits information from the senses to the CNS and carries signals from the CNS to th muscles that move the skeleton Also involved in every move you make Autonomic nervous system Carries messages back and forth between the CNS and the heart, lungs, and other organs and glands Controls activities that are normally outside of coonscious cnontrol, such as digestion and perspirtation(sweating) Computational neuroscientists Have created neural network models on computers Nuclei Collections o nerve cell bodies in the central nervous system Fiber tracts or pathways Axons in the central nervous system that travel toghether in bundles Spinal cord Recieves signals from the senses Including pain and touch from the fingertips Reflexes Involutary, unlearned reaction in the form or swift, automatic, and finely coordinated movements in respose to external stimuli Direct simple behaviors without instruction from the brain Feedback system A series of processes in which information abut the consequences of an action goes back to the source of the action so that adjsutmensts can be made Afferent Sensory neurons Coming toward Efferent neurons Motor neurons Going away Electroencephalograph (EEG) Measures generl electrical activity of the brain Electrodes are pasted o the scalp to detect the electrical fields resulting from the activity of billions of neurons PET scan Can locate cell activity by recording here radioacive substances beome concentradted when injected into the bloodstream PET positron emission tomography Records images from the brain that indicate the location of the radioactivity as the brain performs various tasks Have revelaed that specific brain regions are activated when we look at fearful facial expressions or engage in certain kinds of thoughts MRI magnetic resonance imaging Exposes the brain to a magnetic field and measures the resulting radio frequency waves to get amazingly clear pictures of the brains anatomical details Functional MRI or fMRI Is capable of detecting changes in blood flow tht refect ongoing changes in the activity of neurons Providing a sort of “moving picture” of the brain DTI diffusion tensor imaing Traces activity of axon pathways TMS transcranial magnetic stimulation Temporarily disrupts the function of a particular part of the brain This technique may also have potential in the treatment of certain psychological disorders Hindbrain A continuation of the spinal cord Lies just inside the skull/ blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, and many other vital autonmic functions are controlled by nuclei in the hindbrain Medulla An area in the hindbrain that controls blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, and other vital functions Reticular formation A network of cells and fibers threaded throughout the hindbrain and midbrain that alters the activity of the rest of the brain Is involved for example, arousal and attention Locus coeruleus A small nucleus in the reticular formation involve in attention, sleep, and mood Cerebellum The part of the hindbrain whose function is to control finely coordinatedmovements and to store learned associations that involve movements Appears to play a vital roe in normal sppech integrating moment-to-moment feedback about vocal sonds with a sequnece of precise movents of the lips and tongue Midbrain A small structure between the hindbrain and forebrain that relays information from the eyes, ears, and skin and that controls certain types of automatic behaviors When a loud noise causes you to turn your head reflexively and look in the direction of the sound, your midbrain circuits are at work Substantia nigra Area of midbrain involved in the smooth initiation of movement Means black substance Striatum Are necessary in order to smoothly begin movements Without them you would find it difficult, if not impossible, to get up out of a chair, or lift your hand to swat a fly. Forebrain Responsible for the most complex aspects of behavior and mental life Thalamus Relays signals from most sense organs to higher levels in the brain and plays an important role in processing and making sense out of this information Hypothalamus Regulates hunger, thirst and sex drives Hypo means under/ its under the thalamus Suprachiasmatic nuclei Nuclei in the hypothalamus that generate biological rhythms Keeps an approximately twenty-four hour clock that establishes your biological rhythms Amygdala Associates features of stimuli from two sensory modalities As when we link the shape and feel of objects in memory Hippocampus A structure in the forebrain associated with the formation of new memories Limbic system A set of brain structures that play important roles in regulating emotion and memory Anterograde amnesia Lose the ability to remember new events Stroke An interruption of blood flow in the brain Dementia Deterioration of cognitive capabilities often associated with aging Cerebral hemispheres The left and right halves of the rounded, outermost part of the brain Cerebral cortex The outer surface of the brain Associated with the analysis of information from all the senses, control of voluntary movements, higher-order thought, and other complex aspects of our behavior and mental processes. Anatomical Physical features Gyri Ridges of the brain That gives it that wrinkled apperance Sulci or fissures Valleys of the brain That gives it that wrinkled appearnce Sensory cortex Lies in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes Is the part of the cerebral cortex that receives information from our senses Visual cortex Made up of cells in the occipital lobe Where visual information is received Auditory cortex Made up of cells in the temporal lobe Where auditory information is received Somatosensory cortex Make up of cells in the parietal lobe Where information from the skin about touch, pain, and temperature is received Homunculus Latin for “little man” Motor cortex Create volunttary movements in specifc arts of the body Association cortex Those parts of the cerebral cortex that receive information from more than one sense or that combine sensory and motor information o perform comlex cognitive tasks Such as associating words with images Aphasia Creates difficulty in understanding or producing speech and can involve all the functions of the cerebral cortex Paul Broca Described the difficulties that resut from damage to the association cortex in the frontal lobe near motor areas that control facial muscles Broca's area When this is damaged the mental organizaton of speech suffers, a condition called broca's aphasia Broca's aphasia Victims have great difficulty speaking, and what they say is often grammatically incorrect. Each word comes slowly Carl Wernicke A different set of language problems result from damage to a portion of the association cortex first described in the 1870's by this guy Wernicke's area It is located in the temporal lobe, near an area of the cortex that receives information from the ears and wyes. Wernickes's area is involved in the interpretation of oth speech and written words. Damage to this area can leave a person able to speak, bu it dusrupts the ability to understand to meaning of words or to spek understandably Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga Began to study split-brain patients Split-brain People who had undergone a surgiacal procedure ina n attempt to control severe epilepsy. Corpus callosum A massive bundle of more than a million fibers that connects the two hemispheres. Lateralized Referring to the tendency for one cerebral hemisphere to excel at a particular function or skill compared with the other hemisphere Plasticity The ability to create new synapses and to change the strength of synapses The more you use it the stronger it becomes Parkinson's disease A disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity of the arms and legs, difficulty in initiating movements, and poor balance Neural stem cells These are special glial cells that are capable of dividing to form new tissue, including new neurons Growth factors or neurotrophic factors Which promote the survival of neurons Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) Actually causes neurons to produce the neurotransmitter needed o reverse the effects of parkinson's disease Neurotransmitter system A group of neurons that communicates by using the same neurotransmitter Certain neurotransmitter systems play a dominant role in particular functions, such as emotion or memory, and in particular problems, such as Alzheimer's disease Neuromodulators Act slowly and often modify or “modulate” a cell's response to other neurotransmitters Small-molecule Occur in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system Acetylocholine Is used by neurons of the parasympatheti nervous system to slow the heartbeat and activate the digestive system and by neurons that make muscles contract. Norepinephrine or noradrenaline A neurotransmitter involved in aruousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation Serotonin A neuroransmitter used by cells in parts of the brain involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, and eating Dopamine A neurotransmitter used in the parts of the brain involved in regulating movement and experiencing pleasure GABA gamma-amino butyric acid A neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of neurons Hungtington's disease An inherited and incurable disorder in which the victim is plagued by uncontrollable jerky movement of the arms and legs along with dementia Results in the loss of many GABA-containing neurons in the striatum. Epilepsy A brain disorder associated with seizures and convulsive movements Glutamate An excitatory neurotransmitter that helps strengthen synaptic connections between neurons Opiates Can relieve pain, produce feelings of elation, and in high doses, bring on sleep Such as heroin and morphine Endorphin Refers to any neurotransmitter that can bind to the same receptors stimulated by opiates Endocrine system Cells that form organs called glands and that communicate with one another by secreting cheemicals called hormones Gland An organ that secretes hormonones into the bloodstream Hormones Chemical secreted by a gland into the bloodstream, which carries it througout the body Target organs Organs whose cells have receptors for a hormone (ACTH)adrenocorticortopic hormone Which causes the adrenal glands to release the hormone cortisol into the bloodstream Fight-or-flight syndrome Prepares the animal or person for action in response to danger or other stress The heart beats faster, the liver releases glucose into the bloodstream, fuels are mobilized from fat stores, and the organism usually enters a state of high arousal Immune system The body's system of defense against invading substances and microorganisms Autoimmune disorders In which cells of the immune system attack normal cells of the body, including brain cells Learning Vocabulary terms Definition Example Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. Classical Conditioning Learning which takes place when two or more stimuli are presented together; the subject learns to give a response it already knows to a new stimuli. Stimulus A change in the environment that elicits (brings out) a response; Neutral stimulus A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response; Unconditioned stimulus Reflexively, or automatically, brings about the unconditioned response; Unconditioned response An automatic, involuntary reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus A neutral stimulus at first, but when paired with the UCS, it elicits the conditioned response. Acquisition In classical conditioning, learning to give a known response to a new stimulus, the neutral stimulus. Delayed conditioning Ideal training, NS precedes UCS; briefly overlaps Simultaneous conditioning NS and UCS paired together at same time. Trace conditioning NS presented first, removed, then the UCS is presented. Backward conditioning UCS presented first and NS follows Conditioned taste aversion An intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning. Temporal conditioning Time serves as the NS Extinction Repeatedly presenting a CS without a UCS leads to return of NS; Spontaneous recovery After extinction, and without training, the previous CS suddenly elicits the CR again temporality. Generalization Stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without training. Discrimination The ability to tell the difference between stimuli so that only the CS elicits the CR; Higher-order conditioning Classical conditioning in which a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS. Aversive conditioning Learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer. Instrumental learning Associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences. Law of effect Behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened while behavior followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened. Operant conditioning Learning that occurs when an active learner performs certain voluntary behavior and the consequences of the behavior determines the likelihood of its recurrence. Positive reinforcement A rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; Primary reinforcer Something that is biological important and thus rewarding; Secondary reinforcer Something rewarding because it is associated with a primary reinforcer; Generalized reinforcer Secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcers. Premack principle A more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one; Negative reinforcement Removal of an aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; escape and avoidance punishment An aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated; Omission training Removal of a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated. shaping Positively reinforcing closer closer approximations of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior. Continuous reinforcement Schedule that provides reinforcement following the particular behavior every time it is emitted. Acquisition of a new behavior Partial reinforcement or intermittent schedule Occasional reinforcement of a particular behavior; produces responding that is more resistant to extinction; Fixed ratio Reinforcement of a particular behavior after a specific number of responses. Fixed interval Reinforcement of the first particular response made after a specific length of time. Variable ratio Reinforcement of a particular behavior after a number of responses that changes at random around an average number. Variable interval Reinforcement of the first particular response made after a length of time that change at random around an average time period. Behavior modification A field that applies the behavioral approach scientifically to solve problems; Token economy Operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers to increase appropriated behavior. Learners can exchange secondary reinforcers for desired reward. Biological preparedness Predisposition to easily learn behaviors related to survival of the species. Instinctive drift A conditioned response that moves toward the natural behavior of the organism. Latent learning Learning in the absence of rewards Observational learning Learning that occurs by watching the behavior of a model. Insight The sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem; Author of important study and year Basics of what was done Lesson(s) learned from the study Ivan Pavlov 1900’s A bell was rung right before the meat was given to the dog By repeatedly pairing the food and the bell, the bell alone came to elicit salivation in the dogs. John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner 1920’s Nine-month-old infant knows as baby Albert to fear a rat. Did not get a chance to rid baby Albert of his phobia to the rat. E.L.Thorndike He put hungry cats in puzzle boxes and placed fish outside. To get to the fish, the cats had to step on a pedal, which released the door bolt on the box. The cats moved about the box and clawed at the door. Name of important person What this person is known for Impact on psychology Edward Tolman Studied spatial learning by conducting maze experiments with rats under various conditions. B.F. Skinner Wolfgang Kohler Exposed chimpanzees to new learning tasks and concluded that they learned by insight Consciousness Vocab Term Definition of Term Example Consciousness Awareness of external stimuli and mental activity Conscious level Holds the thoughts and mental processes that you are aware from moment to moment. What you are hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling, etc at the moment. Nonconscious level Physiological process that you are not aware of. Preconscious level Stores sensations, memories, inferences and assumptions that can be brought to the conscious level. Thinking what you are going to do later can come to mind after reading this. Unconscious level Level of mental activity that are important but hard to be conscious of it. Your digestive system. State of consciousness Characteristics of conscious level at any particular moment. Altered state of consciousness Happens when there is a change in stream of consciousness. Slow-wave sleep Slow, deep breathing; a calm, regular heartbeat and reduced blood pressure. Beta waves. Rapid eye movement (REM) Heart rate and blood pressure are almost the same as when a person is awake, also the eyes move back and forth. Insomnia Not being able to fall or stay asleep. Narcolepsy When people fall directly into REM sleep from active state. A person is driving a car and suddenly falls asleep behind the wheel. Sleep apnea Stop breathing when you are asleep. Mr. Cantour needs a mask because sometimes he stops breathing during sleep. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) A sleeping baby stops breathing but does not awaken and suffocates. Nightmare Frightening dreams that occur when asleep. Night terror Frightening dreams that bring terror after waking. You have a nightmare and after waking up you feel scared and the feeling stays for half hour. Sleepwalking Occurs during non-REM sleep, walking asleep. A little kid gets up and starts walking around the house. REM behavior disorder Occurs during REM sleep. A person acts out its dreams because the paralysis that follows REM sleep is not present. A person having a dream and then turns and starts acting out its dream until it falls off the bed. Circadian rhythm Normal-sleep-waking cycle that occurs during a twenty four hour period. Jet lag Common when a person travels from time zone to time zone. The body is ready to wake up or fall asleep at an inappropriate time. When you fly from USA to Japan, the body needs to get used to waking up when it is time to fall asleep and vice-versa. Dream Story like sequences of images, sensations and perceptions. Lucid dreaming Knowing you are dreaming in a dream. A person is dreaming and they realize they are dreaming and start controlling their dream. Hypnosis Altered state of consciousness brought on by special techniques and characterized by responding to suggestions of the hypnotist. A person is hypnotized to give in to the hypnotist. State theory Hypnosis is a special altered state of consciousness. Role theory People only play a role of being hypnotized. Dissociation theory Puts role and state theory together. It contends that hypnosis is a splitting of the central control of thought process and behavior. The person being hypnotized also gives some of the control to the hypnotist. Psychoactive drug Physiological changes by affecting the physiological functioning of the brain. LSD, changes perception of sensory information. Psychopharmacology Study of psychoactive drugs. Blood-brain barrier Part of the structure of the blood vessels that supply the brain. Many chemicals can’t penetrate it. Agonist Drugs that mimic the effects of a particular neurotransmitter by binding to its receptors. Heroin and codeine mimic the pain-regulating endorphins. Antagonist Prevent neurotransmitters from having effect by blocking receptors. Substance abuse Self-administration of drugs that cause social legal or interpersonal problems. Many people tale medicine such as nightquil but can take it wrong and cause problems to the person taking it. Psychological dependence Person needs to take a drug to maintain a sense of well-being. A person can take pills for pain even though the person knows that it will harm them in some way. Physical dependence (addiction) Physical body needs drug. A person gets irritated when he is addicted to a drug and doesn’t have any to use at the moment. Withdrawal syndrome Drug in a person that is physically dependent is removed and suffers this. Being irritated, not being able to stay still are effects of the withdrawal syndrome. Tolerance Body’s requiring ever-increasing amounts to achieve the same psychological and physical effects. Many people need more and more drugs to achieve a certain level of “happiness” Depressant Reduce activity in the central nervous system. Alcohol. Stimulant Increases behavioral and mental activity, Cocaine, caffeine, nicotine. Opiate Produce sleep and pain relief, are highly addictive and can be fatal. Heroin, morphine. Hallucinogen Causes loss of contact with reality and changes in thoughts, perception, and emotion. LSD, ketamin, marijuana. Authors of Important Study and year Basics of What Was Done Lesson(s) learned from the study Roehrich and Goldman (1995) Participants took part in a memory experiment whose real purpose was to prime their positive expectations about the effects of alcohol. Name of Important Person What this person is known for Impact on Psychology William James Compared consciousness to a stream, describing it as ever changing, multilayered and varying in both quantity and quality. Idea of levels of consciousness was born. Ernest Hilgard Described the main changes that people display during hypnosis. Motivation and Emotion Vocab Term Definition of Term Example Motivation Influences that account for the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior. What causes us to persist in our work, sometimes to the point of staying up all night? -motivation Motive A reason of purpose for behavior. One motive can often account for many behaviors. A woman drives a BMW & wears expensive clothes to demonstrate that she belongs to people who are wealthy. Instincts An automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns that are consistently displayed in the presence of specific stimuli. Baby birds instinctively respond to the striped beak of an adult bird by opening their mouths. Instinct Theory Human behaviors are cause by instincts. (curiosity or fearfulness) Nancy wants to have children because she has a reproductive instinct. Drive reduction theory States that biological needs, which are created by imbalances in homeostasis, produce drives. Oscar hasn’t had anything to drink for hours. He has a need for fluids, which has caused a drive to find something to drink. Homeostasis *internal balance* The tendency to keep physiological systems at a steady level by constantly making adjustments in response to change. Suppose that you had to walk outside in cold weather. Your body would sense this change in an external stimuli (the cold) & would begin taking action to maintain your temperature. Shivering, and adjustment that generates body heat, would help keep your temp. from dropping. Need A biological requirement for well-being, Water and food are necessary needs for survival. Drive A feeling of arousal that prompts an organism to take action, restore the balance, and, as a result, reduce the drive. When thirsty, you have the drive to find and drink water. Primary Drives Drives that arise from biological needs. Obtaining food, water, & warmth. Secondary Drives Learned through Operant Conditional. We learn drives that prompt us to obtain objects that are associated w/the reduction of a primary drive. Joseph lives in Alaska. He has learned that it is necessary to pay his power bill on time (secondary drive) in order to stay warm (primary drive) during the winter. Arousal The level of alertness, wakefulness, & activation caused by activity in the central nervous system. After the announcement of a pop quiz, Jimmy’s heart rate, muscle tension, & brain activity increased. Arousal Theory States that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain an optimal level of arousal which varies w/the person & activity. After a day of boring classes & intense studying you may want to watch an exciting movie. Yerkes-Dodson law For easy tasks, moderately high arousal is optimal; for difficult tasks, moderately low is optimal; & for most average tasks, a moderate level of arousal is optimal. Incentive Theory States that human behavior is goal directed; we act to obtain positive When Joanna & David were first married, they saved $ to by a house (incentive). Now their mortgage is paid, & buying a house is no longer an incentive that guides their behavior. Instead, they save $ to take vacations. Hunger The state of wanting to eat. Stomach cues, signals carried by the blood, & hypothalamus activity indicate when we should eat. Satiety The state of no longer wanting to eat. It is triggered by the brain recognizing nutrients & hormones in the bloodstream. Being full. Set point A pre-set natural body weight, determined by the number of fat cells in our body. Like a thermostat – it is set and keeps the room at a constant temp. animal’s set point keeps it at constant weight. Anorexia Nervosa Eating disorder characterized by an obsession w/eating & self starvation, sometimes to the point of death, & distorted body image. Common in adolescent females w/ weight less that 85% of normal. Bulimia Nervosa Eating disorder in which a person consumes large quantities of food (binges) & then attempts to eliminate the food (purges) through vomiting & laxatives. Not considered deadly. Sexual Orientation Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest. Hetero-, Homo-, and Bi- sexuality. Homosexuality A tendency to direct sexual desire toward another person of the same sex. Female-to-female Male-to-male Bisexual A tendency to direct sexual desire toward both sexes Female->Male->Female Heterosexual A tendency to direct sexual desire toward people of the opposite sex. Male-> Female Sexual Response The pattern of arousal during & during and after sexual activity. Sexual arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Sexual dysfunctions Conditions in which a person’s ability or desire to have sex is diminished or gone. The most common sexual dysfunctions in men & women are, respectively, the erectile disorder. Need for achievement A desire to meet some internalized standard of excellence, related to productivity & success. People w/a high need for achievement choose moderately challenging tasks to satisfy their need. During grade school Kelly chose to join an after-school math activity program that had regular tests in addition to projects. Kelly knew that she was good in math & wanted something new to challenge her. Affiliation Motive The need to be with others; is aroused when people feel threatened, anxious, or celebratory. You feel happy when others are happy. Intrinsic motivation A desire to perform and activity for its own sake Marta quits smoking for herself. Extrinsic motivation A desire to perform an activity to obtain a reward. Joe is a lawyer that is only interested in the money and less interested in actually helping the people. Subjective well-being Refers to a combination of a cognitive judgment of satisfaction with life, the frequent experiencing of positive moods & emotions, and the relatively infrequent experiencing of unpleasant moods & emotions. Jules is generally happy with her life, and rarely feels upset or angry. Jules probably has high subjective well-being. Emotion Either positive of a negative experience that’s felt w/some intensity as happening to the self, is generated in part by a cognitive appraisal of situations, and is accompanied by both learned & innate physical responses. Imagine that your boss unjustly says your work is worthless. Rage wells up inside you have worked very hard. When in rage, you may feel your face flush & your heart rate increase. Sympathetic System A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, prepares the body for vigorous activity, such as the Parasympathetic System A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, is involved in activities relating to the growth and nourishment of the body. Coleman is happily relaxing after a long day of classes. As he watches a comedy on TV, his heart rate slows, but digestion activity increases. Flight-or-flight syndrome A Series of physiological changes in activity, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for combat (fight) or escape (flight) from the threatening situations. A fire alarm startles Coleman. In the fight-or-flight response activated by the sympathetic nervous system, his heart rate & breathing increase. Although he can’t feel the difference as he walks to the stairway, his digestive activity has slowed & his blood sugar has increased. Attribution The process of identifying the cause of an event through cognitive appraisal Felicia was smiling as she studied. When she noticed it, she attributed it to her happiness about a trip she was planning for the weekend. Transferred excitation Occurs when arousal form one experience carries over to a different situation. People stay aroused longer than they think they do. If people have been aroused & then encounter a new situation, they may interpret their arousal as an emotional reaction to the new situation. You have just run to class. Just outside the classroom, one of the people working on your project tells you that she couldn’t finish her part of the paper that is due this period. Normally you would be angry but the run intensifies your emotion & you’re not just angry, you are furious. Authors of Important Study and year Basics of What Was Done Lesson(s) learned from the study Abraham Maslow, 1970 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives Arranges biological and social needs in priority from the lowest level of 1) basic biological needs to 2) safety & security needs to 3) belongingness & love needs to 4) self esteem needs to 5) self-actualization, the need to fulfill one’s potential and transcendence, spiritual fulfillment, are the highest needs & can only be realized after each succeeding need below has been fulfilled. Lacks evidence to support theory. William Masters & Virginia Johnson 1966 Measured sexual arousal and behavior in volunteers who received natural & artificial stimulation in laboratory. For both men & women, the excitement phase begins w/ sexual stimulation from the environment or one’s own thoughts. Continued stimulation leads to intensified excitement in the plateau phase, & if stimulation continues, to the intensely pleasurable release of tension in the orgasmic stage. During the resolution phase, both men & women experience a state of relaxation. Following the resolution, men enter a refractory phase, during which they are unresponsive to sexual stimulation. Women are capable of immediately repeating the cycle. William McDougall Listed 18 human instincts & within a few years later, named 10,000 more. Somewhat discarded but psychologists have continued to explore the possibility that at least some aspects of human motivation are innate. William James, late 1800’s James-Lange theory Conscious experience of emotion result’s from one’s awareness or autonomic arousal. Walter Cannon, 1927/1987 Cannon-Bard theory The thalamus sends information to the limbic system & cerebral cortex simultaneously so that conscious experience of emotion accompanies physiological processes. Stanley Schachter, 1996 Schachter-Singer two-factor theory We determine an emotion from our physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our cognitive explanation for the arousal. Name of Important Person What this person is known for Impact on Psychology Alfred Kinsey First extensive studies of sexual behavior in the U.S. during the late 1940’s & early 1950’s. He conducted surveys of people’s sexual lives. Influence Masters and Johnson’s studies. David McClellan Described the achievement motive and used Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure it. Charles Darwin Natural Selection Many behaviors were characteristics that could be passed on. Richard Lazarus Cognitive-Appraisal Theory Our emotional experience depends on out interpretation of the situation we are in. Vocab Term Definition of Term Example Sense System that translates information from outside the nervous system into neural activity. Sensations Messages from the senses that make up the raw information that affects many kinds of behavior and mental processes. Accessory structures Lens of the eye that modify a stimulus. Transduction Converting incoming energy into neural activity through receptor Sensory receptors Specialized cells that direct certain forms of energy Adaptation Responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus decreases over time Coding Translating the physical properties of a stimulus into a pattern of neural activity that specifically identifies those properties Doctrine of specific nerve energies Stimulation of a particular sensory nerve provides codes for that sense o matter hot the stimulation takes place. Temporal Codes Coding attributes of a stimulus in terms of changes in the timing of neural firing Spatial codes Coding attributers of a stimulus in terms of the location of firing neurons relative to their neighbors. Sound A repetitive fluctuation in the pressure of a medium such as air. Basilar membrane The floor of the fluid filled duct that runs through the cochlea Auditory nerve The bundle of axons that carries stimuli from the hair cells of the cochlea to the brain Primary auditory cortex The area in the brains temporal lobe that is first to receive information about sounds from the thalamus. Place theory Hair cells at a particular place on the basilar membrane respond most to a particular frequency of sound. Frequency matching theory The view that some sounds are coded in terms of the frequency of neural firing. Visible light Electromagnetic radiation that has a wave length of about 400 nanometers to about 750 nanometers Light intensity A physical dimension of light waves that refers to how much energy the light contains Light wavelength The distance between peaks in light waves. Cornea The curved transparent protective layer through which light rays enter the eye Pupil An opening in the eye just behind the cornea through which light passes. Iris The colorful parts of the eye which constricts or relaxes to adjust the amount of light entering the eye. Lens The part of the eye behind the pupil that bends light rays focusing them on the retina Retina Surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays. Accommodation The ability of the lens to change its shape and bend light rays so that objects are in focus. Photoreceptors Nerve cells in the retina that code light energy into neural activity Photo pigments Chemicals in photoreceptors that respond to light and assist in converting light into neural activity. Dark adaptation The increasing ability to see in the dark as time in the dark increases. Rods Highly light sensitive but color insensitive photoreceptors in the retina that allow vision even in dim light. Cones photoreceptors in the retina that help us to distinguish colors Fovea A region in the center of the retina where it cones are highly concentrated Acuity Visual clarity which is greatest in the fovea because of its large concentration of cones Lateral inhibition A process in which lateral connections allow one photoreceptor to inhibit the responsiveness of its neighbor Ganglion cells Cells in the retina that generate action potentials. Receptive field The portion of the retina and visual world that affects a given ganglion cell. Optic nerve A bundle of fibers composed of axons of ganglion cells that cells that carries visual information to the brain Blind spot The light insensitive point at which axons from all the ganglion cells converge exit from the eyeball. Optic chiasm Bottom surface of the brain where half of each optic nerves fiber cross over to the opposite side of the brain. Primary visual cortex An area at the back of the brain to which neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus relay visual input. Feature detectors Cells in the cortex that respond to a specific feature of an object. Hue The essential color determined by the dominant wavelength of light Saturation The purity of a color Brightness The sensation of the overall intensity of all of the wavelengths that make up light Trichormatic theory A theory of color vision identifying three types of visual elements each of which is most sensitive to different wavelengths of light Opponent process theory A theory of color vision stating that color sensitive visual elements are grouped into red-green blue-yellow and black-white elements. Synesthesia A blending of sensory experience that causes some people to see sound or taste colors. Olfaction The sense of smell Gestation The sense of taste Olfactory bulb A brain structure that receives messages regarding olfaction. Pheromones Chemicals released by one animals and detected by another shape the second animals behavior Vomeronasal organ A portion of the mammalian olfactory system that in sensitive to pheromones. Papillae Structures on the tongue containing groups of taste receptors or taste buds. Somatic senses Senses of touch temperature pain and kinesthesia. Gate control theory Functional gate in the spinal cord can either let pain impulses travel upward to the brain or block their progress. Analgesia The absence of pain sensations in the presence of a normally painful stimulus. Proprioceptive senses Sensory systems that allow us to now about where we are and what each part of our body is doing Vestibular sense Provides information about the position of the head in space and about its movements Vestibular sacs Organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body’s sense of balance Otoliths Small crystals in the fluid-filled vestibular sacs of the inner ear that when shifted by gravity stimulates nerve cells that inform the brain of the position of the head. Semicircular canals Tubes in the inner ear whose fluid when shifted by head movements stimulates nerve cells that tell the brain about those movements. Kinesthesia The sense that tells you where the parts of your body are with respect to one another. Authors Basics of What Was Done Lesson(s) learned Ramachandran & Rogers- Ramachandran 2000 Patients moved their real hands while looking in the mirror, they not only felt movement occurring in their phantom hands but they could also unclench their phantom fists and stop their intense pain. Arose from research on how vision interacts with the sense of touch. Lettvin et al 1959 Process of interpreting sensations begins in the sense organs themselves Graziano et al 2002 Sensory receptors respond best to changes in energy Bella & Peretz 2003; Stewart & Walsh 2002; Zatoree 2003a A 262 hertz tone is middle c. perfect pitch appears to be an inborn trait Hyde & Peretz 2004 Some children improve their skills at pitch identification if given special training before about the age of six Ayache et al 2003 Conduction deafness can be treated by surgery to break the bones apart or to replace the natural bones with plastic ones Cognitive Abilities and Intelligence Achievement test A measure of what a person has accomplished or learned in a particular area. Aptitude test a test designed to measure a person’s capacity to learn certain things or perform certain tasks. Cognitive ability “The capacity to reason, remembers, understand, solve problems, and make decisions". Convergent thinking The ability to apply logic and knowledge to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem or perform some other complex cognitive task. Crystallized intelligence The specific knowledge gained as a result of applying fluid intelligence. Divergent thinking The ability to think along many alternative paths to generate many different solutions to a problem. Fluid intelligence The basic power of reasoning and problem solving. G A general intelligence factor that Charles Spearman postulated as accounting for positive correlations between people’s scores on all sorts of cognitive ability tests. Intelligence “Those attributes that center around skill at information processing, problem solving, and adapting to new or changing situations". intelligence quotient (IQ score) An index of intelligence that reflects the degree to which a person’s score on an intelligence test deviates from the average score of others in the same age group. IQ test “A test designed to measure intelligence on an objective, standardized scale". Information-processing approach “An approach to the study of intelligence that focuses on mental operations, such as attention and memory that underlie intelligent behavior". Metacognition “The knowledge of what strategies to apply, when to apply them, and how to use them in new situations". Multiple intelligences Eight semi-independent kinds of intelligence postulated by Howard Gardner. Norms Socially based rules that prescribe what people should or should not do in various situations. Psychometric approach “A way of studying intelligence that emphasizes analysis of the products of intelligence, especially scores on intelligence tests". Reliability The degree to which a test can be repeated with the same results. Stanford-Binet “A test for determining a person’s intelligence quotient, or IQ,". Test A systematic procedure for observing behavior in a standard situation and describing it with the help of a numerical scale or a category system. Triarchic theory of intelligence “Robert Sternberg’s theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative, and practical dimensions". Validity The degree to which test scores are interpreted correctly and used appropriately. Characteristics of Intelligence Potential to acquire and apply knowledge. Ability to understand, learn, and think like a problem solver. Carrying knowledge in adapting to new environments or pursue in changing them. Challenging yourself with complex questions and statements. Exercising your mind. Brief History of Intelligence Alfred Binet (pronounce “bih-nay”) Can French children doing poorly in school be identified? Test measured child’s mental age “Regular intelligence” if mental age equaled actual age. Assumed that reasoning, thinking, and problem solving all depend on intelligence. Performed tasks like “unwrapping candy, repeating numbers or sentences from memory, and identifying familiar objects”. English version (Stanford-Binet) was translated by Lewis Terman (1916) Added new items to measure the intelligence of adults and revised the scoring procedure. Mental age divided Chronological age. Results times 100 (intelligence quotient or IQ) Equal mental age and chorological age is considered equal intelligence. Ten year old w/ score of a twelve year old would have an IQ of 12/10 * 100 = 120. Controversy: can intelligence be improved or is it fixed and inherited entity? Group-Administered intelligence tests were created for army recruits during WWII 47% scored at a mental age of 13 years old or lower. Was this a problem with the test or recruits? Fluid Reasoning Knowledge Quantitative Rezoning-Mathematical Visual-Spatial Processing Working Memory David Wechsler improved old tests in three ways. Verbal and subverbal subtests were completed by all test takers Knowing correct answers depended less on familiarity Wechsler intelligence scale for children (4th ed.) – WISC Verbal Comprehension Cluster Investigates whether sentence comprehension and nonsyntactic verbal working memory (vWM) are sustained by the same or by different neural systems. Perceptual Reasoning Component of the WISC IV requires visual perception, organization and reasoning with visually presented, nonverbal material to solve the kinds of problems that are not typically taught at school. The PR Index (PRI) accounts of 45% of variance in general intelligence. Working Memory Is a key cognitive function used in daily life that allows individuals to hold information in mind—“online”—for brief periods of time, typically a few seconds. Processing Speed It involves the ability to automatically and fluently perform relatively easy or over-learned cognitive tasks, especially when high mental efficiency is required.  Calculating today’s IQ Total score is compared to scores earned by other people Aptitude and Achievement Tests Aptitude Test: assesses potential to learned or perform well in the future. Achievement Test: measures what has been accomplished or learned in a particular area. Reliability Low: different results from one time to another High: same results from one time to another Are results repeatable or stable? Estimate using a correlation coefficient Methods for estimation reliability Test-Retest Alternate Form Split half +1 positive correlation -1 negative correlation 0 no correlation Problem before age 7 For teens & adults, reliability is high Validity Low: inaccurate conclusions and predictions High: accurate conclusions and predictions To what degree does the test measure what it is suppose to measure? Evidence about a test’s validity: Content Validity: is the content representative of what the test is suppose to measure Criterion Validity: how well does a test correlate with an independent measure of validity, the criterion. 3) Cognitive Ability Test: an assessment test of s range of reasoning skills. Performance depends on arousal level. Too much or too little tends to decrease performance. Perform better on test arousal level is moderate. May experience physical symptoms (heart palpitations, sweating and negative thoughts ect.) Anxiety may affect 40% of elementary schools students and college students. And think that they are unable to successfully complete the test. Verbal: assesses reasoning processes using the medium of words (e.g., opposites, relationships, deductions, and categorization) Quantitative: use numbers as the symbols process is the same as for verbal reasoning. Non-Verbal: looks at reasoning processes but use shapes and figures. Psychological Disorder Vocab Term Definition of Term Psychopathology Involves patterns of thinking and behavior that are maladaptive, disruptive, or uncomfortable either for the person affected or for those with whom he or she associates. Impaired functioning Is difficulty in fulfilling appropriate and expected family, social and work-related roles. Biopsychosocial Model Is a view of mental disorders as caused by a combination of interacting biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. Neurobiological Model Attributes abnormal behavior to the presence of biochemical, genetic or other physical problems. Psychological Model Views abnormal behavior as caused by mental processes. Sociocultural Model Of abnormal behavior looks for the influence of factors such as gender, social situations, cultural expectations, and historical eras on behavior. Diathesis-stress approach Attributes abnormal behavior to more than one cause; the model recognize the integration of a person’s biological predisposition, environmental surrounding and psychological factors in mental illness. Anxiety disorder Characterized by fear that causes a disruption in a person’s life. Phobia Strong, irrational fears of an object or situation that should not cause such a reaction Specific Phobia A fear of something specific; such as heights, animals, or air travel. Social Phobia Is a fear of being negatively evaluated by others or of doing something so impulsive or outrageous that public humiliation will result. Agoraphobia Is the fear of being alone or away from the security of home. Generalized Anxiety Disorder Involves relatively mild but long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any object or situation. Panic Disorder Consists of attacks of extreme fear and panic that occur with no warning and no obvious cause. Symptoms; heart palpitations, chest pain or pressure, dizziness, sweating, and feeling of faintness. Obsessive-Compulsive disorder(OCD) Involves an obsession with particular thoughts or images, which motivates repetitive, uncontrollable behaviors. Somatoform Disorders Characterized by the presence of physical symptoms of illness in the absence of a physical cause. Conversion Disorder A condition in which a persons reports being blind, deaf, paralyzed, insensitive to pain, or even pregnant, but is not true. Hypochondriasis Is an unjustified concern that one has a serious illness. A person with this disorder makes frequent visits to doctors and will not be convinced that he or she is healthy. Somatization Disorder Is similar to hyphochondriasis. People frequently go to the doctor with vague complaints about a multitude of physical problems rather than any specific disease. Pain disorder Involves the experience of sometimes extreme pain in the absence of a physical cause Dissociative disorder Involves a sudden and usually temporary disruption in a person’s memory, consciousness or identity. Dissociative fugue Is a disorder in which a person experiences sudden memory loss, adopts a new identity, and moves to a new place. Dissociative identity disorder Is a condition in which a person reports having more than one identity, each of which speaks, acts, and writes in a very different way. Mood disorders Are extreme changes in mood, lasting for extended periods of time, which are inconsistent with the happy or sad events in a person’s life. They include major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, mania, and the bipolar disorder. Major depressive disorder Is a mood disorder typified by feelings of sadness and hopelessness and an inability to enjoy oneself or take pleasure in anything. Delusions Are false beliefs Dysthymic disorder Is a form mood disorder that is similar to depression but is less severe and last for a shorter time. Mania Is an elated, very active emotional state. Bipolar I disorder Is a form of mood disorder that involves extreme mood changes In which feelings of mania are followed by severe depression. Cyclothymic Disorder Is a less severe form of bipolar I disorder in which mood swings are not ass extreme. Schizophrenia Is characterized by several of abnormal behaviors of disorders, including abnormalities in thinking, perceptions and attentions, affects, motor behavior, personal identity, motivation, and day to day functioning. Hallucinations Are false perceptions that occur as schizophrenic symptoms. Positive symptoms Of schizophrenia involves distortions of cognitive, perceptual, or behavioral functioning, such as hallucinations or delusions. Negative symptoms Of Schizophrenia involves a decrease or loss in normal functioning, such as absence of pleasure or lack of emotional expressions. Personality Disorders Are long-standing behavior patterns that create problems, usually for others, and are not as severe as mental disorders. Antisocial personality disorder Involves long-term persistent patterns of impulsive, selfish, unscrupulous, even criminal behavior. People with antisocial personalities appear to have no morals and can be dangerous to the public because they very rarely experience deep feelings for anyone. Substance-Related Disorder Are characterized by long-term drug use that causes physical or psychological harm to the user or others. Alcoholism is one example. Addiction Is the development of a physical need for a psychoactive drug. Alcoholism Is characterized by frequent and extreme consumption of alcoholic beverages. Social Cogniton Vocab Term Definition of Term Example Social Psychology Effects of the social world on the behavior and mental processes of individuals. Social cognition Mental processes by which people perceive and react to others. People believe that going to Mexico will get them infected with the swine flu. Self-concept Set of beliefs we have about who we are and what we’re like. Maria believes she is a responsible student, a caring friend, and a somewhat shy person. Self-esteem Evaluations we make about how worthy we are as human beings. Although Juan recently failed a psychology quiz, he knows that he is smart and a good person. Temporal comparison Comparisons between one’s past and present states. Liz takes a new job and usually compares it with her previous job to determine if she has moved up in prestige. Social comparison People compare themselves to others for the purpose of self evaluation. Oscar wants to know how athletic he is, so he compares himself with friends of the same sex. Reference groups Categories in which individuals see themselves as belonging and to which they usually compare themselves. Karen is majoring in business she probably considered her reference group to be students who share her same interest in business. Relative deprivation When people fund their self evaluations to be poor in comparison to others in the new group. Sarah was considered the best in the academic are throughout high school, but once she attended college, there were students that had more knowledge in many subjects. Social identity Beliefs about the groups to which we belong. Saul says he’s a Mexican-American Catholic student. Self-schemas Mental representations people form of themselves. Tony has a differentiated self scheme, thinks of himself as a capable student but incapable car mechanic. Social perception Process through which people interpret information about others. It influences the conclusion one makes about another personality style and why they behave in certain ways. Self-fulfilling prophecy Process by which an impression of a person, object, or event elicits behavior that confirms the impression. Mr. Cantor observes that Saul outstands in Math, and has high expectations of him. Attribution Process of explaining the causes of people’s behavior, including one’s own. One classmate fails to return some borrowed notes on time. You attribute to his behavior to many causes, from an unavoidable emergency to simple selfishness. Fundamental attribution error A tendency to overattribute the behavior of others to internal such as personality traits. Karla’s brother calls and tells her that he flunked the algebra exam. Karla tell him that he is either lazy or stupid or both. She thinks that her brother’s behavior not situational factors caused him to flunk the exam. Actor-observer bias The tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to internal causes while attributing one’s own behavior (especially in errors and failures) to external causes. When John failed to stop at a stop sign, he attributed his behavior to the sun in his eyes and poor placement of the sign (external factors). When someone else runs a stop sign, however, John thinks they did so because of carelessness, or lack of attention (internal factor) Self-serving bias The tendency to have credit for success but to blame external causes for failure. Peter noticed that whenever his company wins a big account with a new client, each person claims responsibility for the success. However, when a client decides to take its business elsewhere, everyone denies responsibility for the clients departure. Attitude The tendency to think, feel, or act positively or negatively toward objects in our environment. Therefore, it has cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Erick joins the marching band because he believes that it challenges, its members to become better musicians (cognitive component). He practices his saxophone nearly everyday (behavioral component) and enjoys band practices and performances (affective component). Elaboration likelihood model A model suggestions that attitude change can be driven by evaluation of the content of a persuasive message (central route) or by irrelevant persuasion (peripheral route) Matthew choose to purchase a generic medication after reading an informational pamphlet and discussing it with his doctor (central route). Jennifer chose to buy generic medicines after seeing a television commercial with a trustworthy, confident person describing their advantages (peripheral route). Cognitive dissonance theory Theory asserting that attitude change is driven by efforts to reduce tension caused by in consistencies between attitudes and behavior. Monica is working on a cigarrate company’s account, but she thinks that a cigarrates should not be advertised to teenagers. Her attitude and behavior are inconsistent. She will have to change her attitude about cigaratte advertising or change jobs in order to reduce cognitive dissonance. Self-perception theory States that we review our own behavior in order ti determine what our attitudes are. To be admitted in to his boyhood group of friends. Irving was required to eat worms after the worms he liked the group even more than before. He inferred that he must really like the group because he was above to overcome his loathing of worms. Stereotypes Are impressions or schemas of entire groups of people. Operate on the false assumption that all members of a group share the same characteristics. This car lead to prejudice. Jan is interviewing candidates for a position in his company. He decides not to hire Mexicans because he’s been told by his peers that Mexicans are lazy, loud, and socially inept. Prejudice A positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of people. Isa, an American, went to study to Russia. She met a child on the street one dayand answer why americans wanted to destroy the worls with nuclear bombs. The child was never exposed to Americans before and prejudged them based on information from the press, her parents, and peers. Discrimination Differential treatment of various groups; the behavioral component of prejudice. Eva brought her boyfriend, an artist to meet her parents. She is very embarrased because her day will not speak to him. Later her dad explain his rudeness and said that all artists are shiftless and no good. Contact hypothesis The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group interests. Anna grew up in the East. Her parents always told her that people who spoke with a Southern accent core stupid and lazy. When Anna’s company relocated her to Texas, she enjoy interacting with other employees and found them component at their jobs. Matching hypothesis States that a person is more likely to form commited relationships which other who are similar in physical attractiveness than those who are notably more or less attractive. As you walk through our neighborhood you will often look at couples and find them to be about equal in attractiveness. Authors of Important Study and year Basics of What Was Done Lesson(s) learned from the study Jeff Greenberg Tom Pyszczynski Sheldon Solomon Terror management theory (1992) In one series of experiments Greenberg and his colleagues ask whether high self-esteem would, in fact serve a buffer against anxiety , specifically the anxiety brought on by thoughts about death and pain. They concluded that the results support terror management theory and that self-esteem is important as a buffer against anxiety and other negative feelings. An increased in self-esteem reduces most people’s anxiety. Name of Important Person What this person is known for Impact on Psychology Leon Festinger Pointing out the self evaluation involves 2 types of nonobjective (subjective) comparison: Temporal and social comparison. People usually look to others who are similar to themselves. Harold Kelly Proposed an influential theory of how people (observers) make attributions about the actions of other people (actors) Kelley’s theory suggest that people are most likely to make internal attributions about an actors behavior when there is a low consensus high consistency and low distinctiveness. Joan Miller & David Bersott Found that studetns from United States and students from India made very different attributions about the reasons why people would do a favor for someone who has just helped them. Cross cultural differences in attributions and other aspects of social cognition may help to explain why people in different cultures sometimes have so much difficulty in understanding one another. Bob Altermyer Prejudice may be especially likely among people who display a personality trait called authoritarianism. Prejudice may result when people’s motivation to enhance their own self steem causes them to disrespect other people. Elliot Aronson Jigsaw technique Studies show that children from various ethnic groups. Who are exposed to the jigsaw technique and other cooporative learning experiences show substancial reduactions in prejudice toward other group. Robert Sternberg Offered a more comprehensive analysis of love.Triangular theory has 3basic components of love are passion, intimacy and commitment. Consummate love is the most complete and satisfying. It is the most complete because it includes a high level of all 3 components and it is the most satisfying because the relationship is likey to fulfill many of the needs of each partner.