INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY A Canadian Focus Ninth Edition

Chapter 14 Organizations and Work What Is Work? Work: Making physical materials (manual) or mental constructs/ideas (intellectual) more useful to the producer. Human work is different. Humans conceptualize the end product Human work is purposive and conscious, not performed by instincts Difference is enabled by ability to communicate symbolically through language. Evolution of Modern Work Social division of labour: men hunted and women gathered. Then, with more complex societies: Detailed division of labour: division of a single job into many parts. Industrialization: mass production of goods. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber saw problems Rise of Scientific Management Scientific Management: Eliminating inefficiencies by breaking down processes into simpler tasks that were easier for workers to learn and be supervised. Called Taylorism after inventor, Frederick Taylor Fordism: the application of Taylor’s ideas to the assembly-line by Henry Ford. People were made into machines and they rebelled. Social contract: so long as the economy maintained itself, people’s jobs would be secure. Where We Work Formal organizations: a division of labour to achieve a goal; they make work more efficient. Rationalization: the overriding concern within capitalist societies for constantly increasing efficiency. But sometimes informal organization, informal groups and rules arise to meet challenges. Can be positive or dysfunctional More flexible and easily transformed (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Organizations are thus ever-changing through the negotiation of its members. There is an ongoing trend of Rationalization driving organizational change McDonalidization: the principals and organization of fast-food restaurants are coming to permeate society more generally. (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Four principals of McDonalidization: Efficiency – finding the best way to achieve a goal Calculability – emphasis on quantity over quality Predictability – consistent products Control – tightly controlled employees and customers Bureaucracy Weber suggested common characteristics Specialization and division of labour Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonality Technical competence, careers, and tenure Formal communication Inequalities in Work Organizations often have hierarchical structures, with top executives directing those working under them. Occupational Segregation – people in different social categories tend to do different types of work. Different types of Occupational Segregation exist: Sex segregation Ethnic and Racial segregation Segregation based on Age Insert Table 14.1 Here This table is on page 333 in the text Youth and the Labour Market Youth Workers – Age 15 – 24 High Unemployment Rates – In 2006, almost twice the national average 1990’s – Fulltime employment rates for youths dropped 27% Fewer youth employed outside the home Youth wages have dropped over the past 30 years Youths have negative work experiences Youths are staying in school longer due to lack of employment opportunities and pursuit of education Work: Satisfying or Alienating? Marx saw that workers had no control, they were directed in tasks, separated or alienated from their “humanity.” Durkheim saw the break-up of integrated communities causing anomie, normlessness. A person’s life is separate and different from others in society. Strikes, sabotage, and protest show lack of commitment to new society. Instrumentalism and Resistance Instrumentalism: working only to earn money. Work is supposed to be fulfilling Resistance: passively or actively slowing, reversing, avoiding, or protesting management directions or strategies. The potential occurs when experience and self-understanding are denied or undermined New approaches like Total Quality Management have been tried to improve work place with little success in North America Sabotage: activities aimed at destroying employers’ property or disturbing the flow of production Unions and Resistance Union: represents a group of workers in negotiations with the employer to get a contract. Won the right to exist in the late 19th century Growth of Unions linked to a series of conditions: New management systems Job insecurity History of poor working conditions Unionization is a response to powerlessness. End of the Social Contract Downsizing: great reductions in workers to maintain market share and investment returns. Workers can be productive, but companies want to out-source, doing work elsewhere for lower wages, to make profits. General flattening of wages of workers in Canada. Decrease in standard of living for most Rich get richer Globalization Globalization of production: companies look worldwide for the most profitable place for production. New sites create competition for Canadians to lower wage expectations Free-trade agreements have forced Canada to drop programs that protected workers’ jobs Deficit cutting led to employment insurance reductions Unemployment Higher than necessary unemployment? Small-batch production Movement of jobs to developing countries Smaller government safety net Unemployment rate is higher now than 1964-1973. Does not count those who have given up looking for work or are on assistance The Future “Lack of work” problem is foremost on agenda. Major issues: how will globalization affect them? Imbalance between resistance and consent People fear the loss of jobs, fewer strikes in the 1990s How to organize the work that has to be done: increase the skill of workers or follow scientific management Click to edit Master title style Click to edit Master subtitle style * * * Chapter 14 Organizations and Work What Is Work? Work: Making physical materials (manual) or mental constructs/ideas (intellectual) more useful to the producer. Human work is different. Humans conceptualize the end product Human work is purposive and conscious, not performed by instincts Difference is enabled by ability to communicate symbolically through language. Evolution of Modern Work Social division of labour: men hunted and women gathered. Then, with more complex societies: Detailed division of labour: division of a single job into many parts. Industrialization: mass production of goods. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber saw problems Rise of Scientific Management Scientific Management: Eliminating inefficiencies by breaking down processes into simpler tasks that were easier for workers to learn and be supervised. Called Taylorism after inventor, Frederick Taylor Fordism: the application of Taylor’s ideas to the assembly-line by Henry Ford. People were made into machines and they rebelled. Social contract: so long as the economy maintained itself, people’s jobs would be secure. Where We Work Formal organizations: a division of labour to achieve a goal; they make work more efficient. Rationalization: the overriding concern within capitalist societies for constantly increasing efficiency. But sometimes informal organization, informal groups and rules arise to meet challenges. Can be positive or dysfunctional More flexible and easily transformed (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Organizations are thus ever-changing through the negotiation of its members. There is an ongoing trend of Rationalization driving organizational change McDonalidization: the principals and organization of fast-food restaurants are coming to permeate society more generally. (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Four principals of McDonalidization: Efficiency – finding the best way to achieve a goal Calculability – emphasis on quantity over quality Predictability – consistent products Control – tightly controlled employees and customers Bureaucracy Weber suggested common characteristics Specialization and division of labour Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonality Technical competence, careers, and tenure Formal communication Inequalities in Work Organizations often have hierarchical structures, with top executives directing those working under them. Occupational Segregation – people in different social categories tend to do different types of work. Different types of Occupational Segregation exist: Sex segregation Ethnic and Racial segregation Segregation based on Age Insert Table 14.1 Here This table is on page 333 in the text Youth and the Labour Market Youth Workers – Age 15 – 24 High Unemployment Rates – In 2006, almost twice the national average 1990’s – Fulltime employment rates for youths dropped 27% Fewer youth employed outside the home Youth wages have dropped over the past 30 years Youths have negative work experiences Youths are staying in school longer due to lack of employment opportunities and pursuit of education Work: Satisfying or Alienating? Marx saw that workers had no control, they were directed in tasks, separated or alienated from their “humanity.” Durkheim saw the break-up of integrated communities causing anomie, normlessness. A person’s life is separate and different from others in society. Strikes, sabotage, and protest show lack of commitment to new society. Instrumentalism and Resistance Instrumentalism: working only to earn money. Work is supposed to be fulfilling Resistance: passively or actively slowing, reversing, avoiding, or protesting management directions or strategies. The potential occurs when experience and self-understanding are denied or undermined New approaches like Total Quality Management have been tried to improve work place with little success in North America Sabotage: activities aimed at destroying employers’ property or disturbing the flow of production Unions and Resistance Union: represents a group of workers in negotiations with the employer to get a contract. Won the right to exist in the late 19th century Growth of Unions linked to a series of conditions: New management systems Job insecurity History of poor working conditions Unionization is a response to powerlessness. End of the Social Contract Downsizing: great reductions in workers to maintain market share and investment returns. Workers can be productive, but companies want to out-source, doing work elsewhere for lower wages, to make profits. General flattening of wages of workers in Canada. Decrease in standard of living for most Rich get richer Globalization Globalization of production: companies look worldwide for the most profitable place for production. New sites create competition for Canadians to lower wage expectations Free-trade agreements have forced Canada to drop programs that protected workers’ jobs Deficit cutting led to employment insurance reductions Unemployment Higher than necessary unemployment? Small-batch production Movement of jobs to developing countries Smaller government safety net Unemployment rate is higher now than 1964-1973. Does not count those who have given up looking for work or are on assistance The Future “Lack of work” problem is foremost on agenda. Major issues: how will globalization affect them? Imbalance between resistance and consent People fear the loss of jobs, fewer strikes in the 1990s How to organize the work that has to be done: increase the skill of workers or follow scientific management Chapter 14 Organizations and Work What Is Work? Work: Making physical materials (manual) or mental constructs/ideas (intellectual) more useful to the producer. Human work is different. Humans conceptualize the end product Human work is purposive and conscious, not performed by instincts Difference is enabled by ability to communicate symbolically through language. Evolution of Modern Work Social division of labour: men hunted and women gathered. Then, with more complex societies: Detailed division of labour: division of a single job into many parts. Industrialization: mass production of goods. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber saw problems Rise of Scientific Management Scientific Management: Eliminating inefficiencies by breaking down processes into simpler tasks that were easier for workers to learn and be supervised. Called Taylorism after inventor, Frederick Taylor Fordism: the application of Taylor’s ideas to the assembly-line by Henry Ford. People were made into machines and they rebelled. Social contract: so long as the economy maintained itself, people’s jobs would be secure. Where We Work Formal organizations: a division of labour to achieve a goal; they make work more efficient. Rationalization: the overriding concern within capitalist societies for constantly increasing efficiency. But sometimes informal organization, informal groups and rules arise to meet challenges. Can be positive or dysfunctional More flexible and easily transformed (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Organizations are thus ever-changing through the negotiation of its members. There is an ongoing trend of Rationalization driving organizational change McDonalidization: the principals and organization of fast-food restaurants are coming to permeate society more generally. (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Four principals of McDonalidization: Efficiency – finding the best way to achieve a goal Calculability – emphasis on quantity over quality Predictability – consistent products Control – tightly controlled employees and customers Bureaucracy Weber suggested common characteristics Specialization and division of labour Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonality Technical competence, careers, and tenure Formal communication Inequalities in Work Organizations often have hierarchical structures, with top executives directing those working under them. Occupational Segregation – people in different social categories tend to do different types of work. Different types of Occupational Segregation exist: Sex segregation Ethnic and Racial segregation Segregation based on Age Table 14.1 [Insert Table 14.1 – page 333] Youth and the Labour Market Youth Workers: Age 15 – 24 High Unemployment Rates – In 2006, almost twice the national average 1990’s – Fulltime employment rates for youths dropped 27% Fewer youth employed outside the home Youth wages have dropped over the past 30 years Youths have negative work experiences Youths are staying in school longer due to lack of employment opportunities and pursuit of education Work: Satisfying or Alienating? Marx saw that workers had no control, they were directed in tasks, separated or alienated from their “humanity.” Durkheim saw the break-up of integrated communities causing anomie, normlessness. A person’s life is separate and different from others in society. Strikes, sabotage, and protest show lack of commitment to new society. Instrumentalism and Resistance Instrumentalism: working only to earn money. Work is supposed to be fulfilling Resistance: passively or actively slowing, reversing, avoiding, or protesting management directions or strategies. The potential occurs when experience and self-understanding are denied or undermined New approaches like Total Quality Management have been tried to improve work place with little success in North America Sabotage: activities aimed at destroying employers’ property or disturbing the flow of production Unions and Resistance Union: represents a group of workers in negotiations with the employer to get a contract. Won the right to exist in the late 19th century Growth of Unions linked to a series of conditions: New management systems Job insecurity History of poor working conditions Unionization is a response to powerlessness. End of the Social Contract Downsizing: great reductions in workers to maintain market share and investment returns. Workers can be productive, but companies want to out-source, doing work elsewhere for lower wages, to make profits. General flattening of wages of workers in Canada. Decrease in standard of living for most Rich get richer Globalization Globalization of production: companies look worldwide for the most profitable place for production. New sites create competition for Canadians to lower wage expectations Free-trade agreements have forced Canada to drop programs that protected workers’ jobs Deficit cutting led to employment insurance reductions Unemployment Higher than necessary unemployment? Small-batch production Movement of jobs to developing countries Smaller government safety net Unemployment rate is higher now than 1964-1973. Does not count those who have given up looking for work or are on assistance The Future “Lack of work” problem is foremost on agenda. Major issues: how will globalization affect them? Imbalance between resistance and consent People fear the loss of jobs, fewer strikes in the 1990s How to organize the work that has to be done: increase the skill of workers or follow scientific management Chapter 14 Organizations and Work What Is Work? Work: Making physical materials (manual) or mental constructs/ideas (intellectual) more useful to the producer. Human work is different. Humans conceptualize the end product Human work is purposive and conscious, not performed by instincts Difference is enabled by ability to communicate symbolically through language. Evolution of Modern Work Social division of labour: men hunted and women gathered. Then, with more complex societies: Detailed division of labour: division of a single job into many parts. Industrialization: mass production of goods. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber saw problems Rise of Scientific Management Scientific Management: Eliminating inefficiencies by breaking down processes into simpler tasks that were easier for workers to learn and be supervised. Called Taylorism after inventor, Frederick Taylor Fordism: the application of Taylor’s ideas to the assembly-line by Henry Ford. People were made into machines and they rebelled. Social contract: so long as the economy maintained itself, people’s jobs would be secure. Where We Work Formal organizations: a division of labour to achieve a goal; they make work more efficient. Rationalization: the overriding concern within capitalist societies for constantly increasing efficiency. But sometimes informal organization, informal groups and rules arise to meet challenges. Can be positive or dysfunctional More flexible and easily transformed (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Organizations are thus ever-changing through the negotiation of its members. There is an ongoing trend of Rationalization driving organizational change McDonalidization: the principals and organization of fast-food restaurants are coming to permeate society more generally. (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Four principals of McDonalidization: Efficiency – finding the best way to achieve a goal Calculability – emphasis on quantity over quality Predictability – consistent products Control – tightly controlled employees and customers Bureaucracy Weber suggested common characteristics Specialization and division of labour Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonality Technical competence, careers, and tenure Formal communication Inequalities in Work Organizations often have hierarchical structures, with top executives directing those working under them. Occupational Segregation – people in different social categories tend to do different types of work. Different types of Occupational Segregation exist: Sex segregation Ethnic and Racial segregation Segregation based on Age Table 14.1 [Insert Table 14.1 – page 333] Youth and the Labour Market Youth Workers: Age 15 – 24 High Unemployment Rates – In 2006, almost twice the national average 1990’s – Fulltime employment rates for youths dropped 27% Fewer youth employed outside the home Youth wages have dropped over the past 30 years Youths have negative work experiences Youths are staying in school longer due to lack of employment opportunities and pursuit of education Work: Satisfying or Alienating? Marx saw that workers had no control, they were directed in tasks, separated or alienated from their “humanity.” Durkheim saw the break-up of integrated communities causing anomie, normlessness. A person’s life is separate and different from others in society. Strikes, sabotage, and protest show lack of commitment to new society. Instrumentalism and Resistance Instrumentalism: working only to earn money. Work is supposed to be fulfilling Resistance: passively or actively slowing, reversing, avoiding, or protesting management directions or strategies. The potential occurs when experience and self-understanding are denied or undermined New approaches like Total Quality Management have been tried to improve work place with little success in North America Sabotage: activities aimed at destroying employers’ property or disturbing the flow of production Unions and Resistance Union: represents a group of workers in negotiations with the employer to get a contract. Won the right to exist in the late 19th century Growth of Unions linked to a series of conditions: New management systems Job insecurity History of poor working conditions Unionization is a response to powerlessness. End of the Social Contract Downsizing: great reductions in workers to maintain market share and investment returns. Workers can be productive, but companies want to out-source, doing work elsewhere for lower wages, to make profits. General flattening of wages of workers in Canada. Decrease in standard of living for most Rich get richer Globalization Globalization of production: companies look worldwide for the most profitable place for production. New sites create competition for Canadians to lower wage expectations Free-trade agreements have forced Canada to drop programs that protected workers’ jobs Deficit cutting led to employment insurance reductions Unemployment Higher than necessary unemployment? Small-batch production Movement of jobs to developing countries Smaller government safety net Unemployment rate is higher now than 1964-1973. Does not count those who have given up looking for work or are on assistance The Future “Lack of work” problem is foremost on agenda. Major issues: how will globalization affect them? Imbalance between resistance and consent People fear the loss of jobs, fewer strikes in the 1990s How to organize the work that has to be done: increase the skill of workers or follow scientific management Chapter 14 Organizations and Work What Is Work? Work: Making physical materials (manual) or mental constructs/ideas (intellectual) more useful to the producer. Human work is different. Humans conceptualize the end product Human work is purposive and conscious, not performed by instincts Difference is enabled by ability to communicate symbolically through language. Evolution of Modern Work Social division of labour: men hunted and women gathered. Then, with more complex societies: Detailed division of labour: division of a single job into many parts. Industrialization: mass production of goods. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber saw problems Rise of Scientific Management Scientific Management: Eliminating inefficiencies by breaking down processes into simpler tasks that were easier for workers to learn and be supervised. Called Taylorism after inventor, Frederick Taylor Fordism: the application of Taylor’s ideas to the assembly-line by Henry Ford. People were made into machines and they rebelled. Social contract: so long as the economy maintained itself, people’s jobs would be secure. Where We Work Formal organizations: a division of labour to achieve a goal; they make work more efficient. Rationalization: the overriding concern within capitalist societies for constantly increasing efficiency. But sometimes informal organization, informal groups and rules arise to meet challenges. Can be positive or dysfunctional More flexible and easily transformed (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Organizations are thus ever-changing through the negotiation of its members. There is an ongoing trend of Rationalization driving organizational change McDonalidization: the principals and organization of fast-food restaurants are coming to permeate society more generally. (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Four principals of McDonalidization: Efficiency – finding the best way to achieve a goal Calculability – emphasis on quantity over quality Predictability – consistent products Control – tightly controlled employees and customers Bureaucracy Weber suggested common characteristics Specialization and division of labour Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonality Technical competence, careers, and tenure Formal communication Inequalities in Work Organizations often have hierarchical structures, with top executives directing those working under them. Occupational Segregation – people in different social categories tend to do different types of work. Different types of Occupational Segregation exist: Sex segregation Ethnic and Racial segregation Segregation based on Age Table 14.1 Youth and the Labour Market Youth Workers: Age 15 – 24 High Unemployment Rates – In 2006, almost twice the national average 1990’s – Fulltime employment rates for youths dropped 27% Fewer youth employed outside the home Youth wages have dropped over the past 30 years Youths have negative work experiences Youths are staying in school longer due to lack of employment opportunities and pursuit of education Work: Satisfying or Alienating? Marx saw that workers had no control, they were directed in tasks, separated or alienated from their “humanity.” Durkheim saw the break-up of integrated communities causing anomie, normlessness. A person’s life is separate and different from others in society. Strikes, sabotage, and protest show lack of commitment to new society. Instrumentalism and Resistance Instrumentalism: working only to earn money. Work is supposed to be fulfilling Resistance: passively or actively slowing, reversing, avoiding, or protesting management directions or strategies. The potential occurs when experience and self-understanding are denied or undermined New approaches like Total Quality Management have been tried to improve work place with little success in North America Sabotage: activities aimed at destroying employers’ property or disturbing the flow of production Unions and Resistance Union: represents a group of workers in negotiations with the employer to get a contract. Won the right to exist in the late 19th century Growth of Unions linked to a series of conditions: New management systems Job insecurity History of poor working conditions Unionization is a response to powerlessness. End of the Social Contract Downsizing: great reductions in workers to maintain market share and investment returns. Workers can be productive, but companies want to out-source, doing work elsewhere for lower wages, to make profits. General flattening of wages of workers in Canada. Decrease in standard of living for most Rich get richer Globalization Globalization of production: companies look worldwide for the most profitable place for production. New sites create competition for Canadians to lower wage expectations Free-trade agreements have forced Canada to drop programs that protected workers’ jobs Deficit cutting led to employment insurance reductions Unemployment Higher than necessary unemployment? Small-batch production Movement of jobs to developing countries Smaller government safety net Unemployment rate is higher now than 1964-1973. Does not count those who have given up looking for work or are on assistance The Future “Lack of work” problem is foremost on agenda. Major issues: how will globalization affect them? Imbalance between resistance and consent People fear the loss of jobs, fewer strikes in the 1990s How to organize the work that has to be done: increase the skill of workers or follow scientific management Chapter 14 Organizations and Work What Is Work? Work: Making physical materials (manual) or mental constructs/ideas (intellectual) more useful to the producer. Human work is different. Humans conceptualize the end product Human work is purposive and conscious, not performed by instincts Difference is enabled by ability to communicate symbolically through language. Evolution of Modern Work Social division of labour: men hunted and women gathered. Then, with more complex societies: Detailed division of labour: division of a single job into many parts. Industrialization: mass production of goods. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber saw problems Rise of Scientific Management Scientific Management: Eliminating inefficiencies by breaking down processes into simpler tasks that were easier for workers to learn and be supervised. Called Taylorism after inventor, Frederick Taylor Fordism: the application of Taylor’s ideas to the assembly-line by Henry Ford. People were made into machines and they rebelled. Social contract: so long as the economy maintained itself, people’s jobs would be secure. Where We Work Formal organizations: a division of labour to achieve a goal; they make work more efficient. Rationalization: the overriding concern within capitalist societies for constantly increasing efficiency. But sometimes informal organization, informal groups and rules arise to meet challenges. Can be positive or dysfunctional More flexible and easily transformed (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Organizations are thus ever-changing through the negotiation of its members. There is an ongoing trend of Rationalization driving organizational change McDonalidization: the principals and organization of fast-food restaurants are coming to permeate society more generally. (cont’d) Where We Work (cont’d) Four principals of McDonalidization: Efficiency – finding the best way to achieve a goal Calculability – emphasis on quantity over quality Predictability – consistent products Control – tightly controlled employees and customers Bureaucracy Weber suggested common characteristics Specialization and division of labour Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonality Technical competence, careers, and tenure Formal communication Inequalities in Work Organizations often have hierarchical structures, with top executives directing those working under them. Occupational Segregation – people in different social categories tend to do different types of work. Different types of Occupational Segregation exist: Sex segregation Ethnic and Racial segregation Segregation based on Age Table 14.1 Youth and the Labour Market Youth Workers: Age 15 – 24 High Unemployment Rates – In 2006, almost twice the national average 1990’s – Fulltime employment rates for youths dropped 27% Fewer youth employed outside the home Youth wages have dropped over the past 30 years Youths have negative work experiences Youths are staying in school longer due to lack of employment opportunities and pursuit of education Work: Satisfying or Alienating? Marx saw that workers had no control, they were directed in tasks, separated or alienated from their “humanity.” Durkheim saw the break-up of integrated communities causing anomie, normlessness. A person’s life is separate and different from others in society. Strikes, sabotage, and protest show lack of commitment to new society. Instrumentalism and Resistance Instrumentalism: working only to earn money. Work is supposed to be fulfilling Resistance: passively or actively slowing, reversing, avoiding, or protesting management directions or strategies. The potential occurs when experience and self-understanding are denied or undermined New approaches like Total Quality Management have been tried to improve work place with little success in North America Sabotage: activities aimed at destroying employers’ property or disturbing the flow of production Unions and Resistance Union: represents a group of workers in negotiations with the employer to get a contract. Won the right to exist in the late 19th century Growth of Unions linked to a series of conditions: New management systems Job insecurity History of poor working conditions Unionization is a response to powerlessness. End of the Social Contract Downsizing: great reductions in workers to maintain market share and investment returns. Workers can be productive, but companies want to out-source, doing work elsewhere for lower wages, to make profits. General flattening of wages of workers in Canada. Decrease in standard of living for most Rich get richer Globalization Globalization of production: companies look worldwide for the most profitable place for production. New sites create competition for Canadians to lower wage expectations Free-trade agreements have forced Canada to drop programs that protected workers’ jobs Deficit cutting led to employment insurance reductions Unemployment Higher than necessary unemployment? Small-batch production Movement of jobs to developing countries Smaller government safety net Unemployment rate is higher now than 1964-1973. Does not count those who have given up looking for work or are on assistance The Future “Lack of work” problem is foremost on agenda. Major issues: how will globalization affect them? Imbalance between resistance and consent People fear the loss of jobs, fewer strikes in the 1990s How to organize the work that has to be done: increase the skill of workers or follow scientific management