Transcript
CHAPTER 5:
Developmental Literacy Impairments
Introduction to Communication Disorders: A Lifespan Evidence-Based Perspective
5th Edition
Owens, Farinella, & Metz
Developed by Sarah A. Dachtyl, Ph.D., CCC/SLP
Chapter Learning Goals
Describe the aspects of literacy that are of concern to the SLP
Explain how literacy develops
Explain the deficits in literacy experienced by children with language impairment
Describe an assessment of literacy
Give examples of intervention for literacy
Outline
Reading
Writing
Developmental Literacy Impairments
Literacy: The use of visual modes of communication (reading and writing)
As high as 60% of children with LI experience difficulty with literacy
Assessment and intervention for literacy are important for both children and adults
Reading
Decoding: Segmenting a word and blending the sounds together to form a word
Words take on more meaning based on grammar and context
Interaction between the print and linguistic/conceptual information of the reader
Phonological skills are essential for decoding
Syntax, morphology, semantics, and pragmatics are needed for comprehension
Reader uses language and experience to interpret the message
Reading
Phonological Awareness
Knowledge of sounds/syllables and the sound structure of words
Phonemic awareness: The ability to manipulate sounds, such as blending or segmenting
Related to reading skills and is the best predictor of spelling ability in early elementary
Ability to determine a word when a phoneme or syllable is deleted, to blend or create a word from individual sounds and syllables, and to compare initial phonemes
Reading
Morphological Awareness
By 10 years of age or earlier, awareness of and knowledge about the morphological structure of words is a better predictor of decoding ability
Morphological complexity of words increases as children progress into middle school
Reading
Comprehension
Basic level: Concerned primarily with decoding
Meaning is actively constructed from words and sentences and from personal meanings and experiences
Critical literacy: Active analysis and synthesis of information; ability to explain content
Dynamic literacy: Relate content to other knowledge
Metacognition
Self-appraisal
Executive function
Reading
Reading Development Through the Lifespan
Emerging Literacy
Reading development begins around age 1 when books are shared with toddlers
Dialogic reading
Print awareness
Children with good language seem to enjoy reading and pretend to read
By age 4, children notice phonological similarities and syllable structure; may find rhyming funny
Preschool teachers can be trained in emergent literacy
Reading
Reading Development Through the Lifespan
Emerging Literacy
Five kindergarten variables that predict reading success by 2nd grade: letter identification, sentence imitation, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, maternal education
Phonics: Sound-letter correspondence
By 3rd grade, there is a shift from learning to read to reading to learn
Reading
Reading Development Through the Lifespan
Mature Literacy
Mature readers use very little cognitive energy determining word pronunciation
Language and experience are used to understand the text, which is monitored to ensure the information makes sense
Prediction of the next word or phrase aids quick processing
Reading is interactive and one of the ways adults increase vocabulary and knowledge
Reading
Reading Problems Through the Lifespan
Risk of reading difficulties is high in those with articulation or language impairments
Poor reading comprehenders have deficits in oral language comprehension but normal phonological abilities
Children who are poor decoders have poor phonological abilities but little or no oral language comprehension difficulties
Children with a specific disorder in literacy (SLDL) have learning disorders primarily in reading and writing
Reading
Reading Problems Through the Lifespan
Children with SLDL have poor word recognition or decoding, accompanied by problems with phonological processing
Three types of SLDL
Children with SLI may be similar, exhibiting grapheme-phoneme errors and syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic errors when reading; comprehension may also be impaired
Reading
Reading Problems Through the Lifespan
Hyperlexia: Poor comprehension but typical to above-average word recognition ability
May occur in ASD
Causal factors for literacy impairment may be intrinsic or extrinsic
Many children with ASD have accompanying literacy impairments and uneven development of skills predictive of reading ability
Reading
Reading Problems Through the Lifespan
Children with LD acquire reading typically, but are substantially below average by 5th grade
Some children might memorize word shapes, letter names, or guess rather than decoding
Poor readers lack strategies to guide and control their reading
Many children with language impairments are at risk for reading impairment
As adolescents, poor readers exhibit vocabulary, grammar, and verbal memory deficits
Significant negative correlation between nonmainstream dialect use and reading achievement
Reading
Assessment of Developmental Reading
Early literacy questionnaires
Interview teachers, parents, and the child
Observations
Standardized measures
Oral language samples
Analysis of miscues
Written story telling
Comprehension measures
Reading
Assessment of Developmental Reading
Phonological Awareness
Rhyming
Syllabication
Segmentation
Phoneme isolation
Deletion
Substitution
Blending
Reading
Assessment of Developmental Reading
Word Recognition
Material should be appropriate
Use various tasks
Use several measures
Consider cultural and linguistic background
Demonstrate unfamiliar tasks
Reading deficits not limited to those with emergent literacy
Observation and interpretation is extremely important
Curriculum-based measures and dynamic assessment may be more appropriate
Should be done with and without clues
Note all errors, types, and attempts to sound out words
Reading
Assessment of Developmental Reading
Morphological Awareness
Should examine adolescent students’ understanding of common morphemes
Text Comprehension
Assess oral language, knowledge of narrative schemes and text grammar schemes, and metacognition
Standardized tests should be supplemented by other naturalistic observation/measures
Reading
Assessment of Developmental Reading
Executive Function
Self-regulation can be assessed by
Interview questions about strategies used for reading tasks
Think-alouds or verbalizing thoughts accompanying reading
Error or inconsistency detection during reading
Reading
Intervention for Developmental Reading Impairment
SLP supports classroom teacher and reading specialist
Embedded/explicit model of intervention:
Literacy-rich experiences embedded in daily curriculum
Explicit, focused, and therapeutic teaching
Two-prong intervention model
Meaning foundation
Form foundation
Reading
Intervention for Developmental Reading Impairment
Phonological Awareness
Children who receive phonological awareness training have higher phonemic awareness, word attack, and word identification skills
Phonological awareness intervention should begin before children lag too far behind
Phonological awareness should be taught within meaningful context with older children
Programs that focus on one or two skills yield better results
Reading
Intervention for Developmental Reading Impairment
Morphological Awareness
Reading and spelling accuracy can be improved through instruction in morphological awareness with other forms of linguistic awareness
Intervention might focus on increasing awareness of the morphological structure of words and the orthographic rules that apply when suffixes are added
Reading
Intervention for Developmental Reading Impairment
Word Recognition
Goals
Teach phonemic decoding skills
Develop a rich sight vocabulary
Improve reading comprehension
Context can be used to help predict words
Reading
Intervention for Developmental Reading Impairment
Text Comprehension
May begin with telling stories
Can progress to oral and written narrative interpretation
Before, during, and after reading activities
Postreading can include story organizers, retelling, and creating narrative variations
Comprehension: teach explicit and precise language style
Comprehension: SLP can facilitate via instruction, questions, visual and verbal cues, explanations, and comments
Internalize comprehension strategies
Address author’s goals and character motivations
Reading
Intervention for Developmental Reading Impairment
Executive Function
Working memory
Self-directed speech
Problem solving
Distancing from the text and toward independent thought are important for more advanced readers
Writing
Using knowledge and new ideas combined with language knowledge to create text
Involves motor, cognitive, linguistic, affective, and executive function
Decontextualized: Outside a conversational context
Spelling
Executive function
Text construction, or going from ideas to writing
Memory
Writing
Spelling
Usually self-taught/trial-and-error approach
~4,000 words are taught in elementary school
Mature spellers rely on
Memory
Spelling/reading experience
Phonological/semantic/morphological knowledge
Orthographic knowledge/mental grapheme representations
Analogy
Spelling competes with other aspects of writing for limited cognitive energy
Writing
Writing Development Through the Lifespan
Emerging Literacy
Initially treat writing and speaking as separate
Spoken and written systems converge over time
Speech is still more complex
Writing slowly overtakes speech
Written sentences become longer and more complex
Children become more aware of the audience
Writing
Writing Development Through the Lifespan
Mature Literacy
Speaking and writing becomes consciously separate
Not achieved by all writers
Adult writing
Longer, more complex sentences
More abstract nouns
More metalinguistic and metacognitive terms
Writing
Writing Development Through the Lifespan
Spelling
Preliterate attempts include scribbling and drawing
Phoneme-grapheme knowledge and letter names
Invented spelling and letter name spelling
As children recognize more regularities and consolidate the alphabetic system, they become more efficient
Increased memory capacity supports spelling
Most shift from a phonological strategy to a mixed one between 2nd and 5th grade
Adults spell in various ways
Writing
Writing Development Through the Lifespan
Executive Function
Develop cognitive abilities needed for mature writing in early adulthood (frontal lobes)
Young writers need guidance in planning and revising
By junior high, teens are capable of revising all aspects of writing
Improved long-term memory improves compositional quality
Writing
Writing Development Through the Lifespan
Text Generation
Early text lacks cohesion and uses structures repeatedly
Mature writers use more variety
Written narratives emerge before expository texts
In adolescence, expository writing increases in
Length
MLU
Relative clause production
Use of transitions
Writing
Writing Problems Through the Lifespan
Children with LI often have writing deficits, evidenced in reduced written productivity, total number of words, total number of utterances, or total number of ideas
Children with LD may have difficulties with all aspects of the writing process
Writing
Writing Problems Through the Lifespan
Deficits in Spelling
Poor phonological processing and knowledge/use of phoneme/grapheme information
Poor spellers tend to rely on visual matching skills and phoneme position rules to compensate for limited knowledge of sound/letter correspondence
Writing
Writing Problems Through the Lifespan
Deficits in Executive Function
Some children with LD write whatever comes to mind with little planning
Produce and elaborate little
Revise ineffectively
Detect errors poorly
Experience difficulty executing intended changes
Planning is difficult because of language formulation difficulties
Writing
Writing Problems Through the Lifespan
Deficits in Text Generation
Children with LI may lack mature internalized story models or may be unable to visualize the words
Narratives of children with LD contain shorter, less complex sentences, are shorter and have fewer episodes, contain fewer details, and fail to consider the needs of the listener
Children with LI often put little though or organization into writing and there is little revision
Children with LD have difficulty using morphological endings in writing
Writing
Assessment of Developmental Writing
Portfolios
Narratives are best for young elementary students
Expository writing samples for older elementary
Executive function is measured within writing tasks
Writing can be analyzed on textual, linguistic, and orthographic levels
Writing
Assessment of Developmental Writing
Assessment of Spelling
Assessed through dictation, connected writing, standardized assessment
Focus on patterns
Assessment of Text Generation
Total number of words and different words used
Word choice, sentence/clause length, coherence
Writing
Intervention for Developmental Writing Impairment
Spelling
Integrated into authentic reading and writing events
Words selected for intervention should be individualized and reflect curriculum
Goal is to learn strategies of spelling and rules
Children with LD benefit from multisensory input
Word analysis and sorting tasks can be used
Spell checkers are not always helpful
Word prediction can reduce errors
Proofing and editing on hard copy seems to increase the number of correctly spelled words
Writing
Intervention for Developmental Writing Impairment
Executive Function
Goal-Plan-Do-Review
Choosing the topic can be motivating
Ask questions to help focus on audience
Executive function training plus word processing training results in larger gains
Speech recognition software may help but cannot overcome oral language difficulties
Writing
Intervention for Developmental Writing Impairment
Narrative Text Generation
Story grammar: Common event sequences and elements of narratives
Children may not realize they know a narrative or how to start
Can be guided through brainstorming, story guides, prompts, acronyms
Explicit instruction in story grammar or structure
Story maps
Writing
Intervention for Developmental Writing Impairment
Expository Text Generation
EmPOWER
Evaluate, make a Plan, Organize, Work, Evaluate, & Rework
Can use prompt cards for each section
Get feedback from peers before revising
SLP mediates
Summary
SLP helps children obtain language-based skills upon literacy is based
Team approach
Natural extension of SLP’s concern for language in all modes of communication
Online Resources
ASHA website – search for the article “The Neurobiology of Reading and Dyslexia” www.asha.org
The Learning Disabilities Association of America: www.ldanatl.org
MedicineNet – search for “Dyslexia”: www.medicinenet.com
WETA, LD Online: www.ldonline.org
Mayo Clinic website: www.mayoclinic.com
Bright Solutions for Dyslexia: www.dys-add.com
Scholastic Publications: www.scholastic.com/home/
Creative Writing Solutions: www.creative-writing-solutions.com