GMAT Reasoning Test 08.docx

GMAT Reasoning Test 7 Passage 71 to 80 Passage 71 (8/22) Behavior is one of two general responses available to endothermic (endothermic: adj.??(?)?,[?]???) (warm-blooded) species for the regulation of body temperature, the other being innate (reflexive) mechanisms of heat production and heat loss. Human beings rely primarily on the first to provide a hospitable thermal microclimate (microclimate: n.[?]???(?????????????????)) for themselves, in which the transfer of heat between the body and the environment is accomplished with minimal involvement of innate mechanisms of heat production and loss. Thermoregulatory (thermoregulatory: adj.?????,??(??)???) behavior anticipates hyperthermia, and the organism adjusts its behavior to avoid becoming hyperthermic: it removes layers of clothing, it goes for a cool swim, etc. The organism can also respond to changes in the temperature of the body core, as is the case during exercise; but such responses result from the direct stimulation of thermoreceptors distributed widely within the central nervous system (central nervous system: n. ??????), and the ability of these mechanisms to help the organism adjust to gross changes in its environment is limited. Until recently it was assumed that organisms respond to microwave radiation in the same way that they respond to temperature changes caused by other forms of radiation. After all, the argument runs, microwaves are radiation and heat body tissues. This theory ignores the fact that the stimulus to a behavioral response is normally a temperature change that occurs at the surface of the organism. The thermoreceptors that prompt behavioral changes are located within the first millimeter of the skin’s surface, but the energy of a microwave field (microwave field: ????, ???) may be selectively deposited in deep tissues, effectively bypassing these thermoreceptors, particularly if the field is at near-resonant frequencies. The resulting temperature profile (temperature profile: ?????, ????) may well be a kind of reverse thermal gradient in which the deep tissues are warmed more than those of the surface. Since the heat is not conducted outward to the surface to stimulate the appropriate receptors, the organism does not “appreciate” this stimulation in the same way that it “appreciates” heating and cooling of the skin. In theory (in theory: ???), the internal organs of a human being or an animal could be quite literally cooked well-done (well-done: adj.????, ?????) before the animal even realizes that the balance of its thermomicroclimate has been disturbed. Until a few years ago, microwave irradiations at equivalent plane-wave power densities of about 100 mW/cm2 were considered unequivocally to produce “thermal” effects; irradiations within the range of 10 to 100 mW/cm2 might or might not produce “thermal” effects; while effects observed at power densities below 10 mW/cm2 were assumed to be “nonthermal” in nature. Experiments have shown this to be an oversimplification, and a recent report suggests that fields as weak as 1 mW/cm2 can be thermogenic. When the heat generated in the tissues by an imposed radio frequency (radio frequency: n.?????) (plus the heat generated by metabolism) exceeds the heat-loss capabilities of the organism, the thermoregulatory system has been compromised. Yet surprisingly, not long ago (not long ago: adv.???), an increase in the internal body temperature was regarded merely as “evidence” of a thermal effect. 1. The author is primarily concerned with (A) showing that behavior is a more effective way of controlling bodily temperature than innate mechanisms (B) criticizing researchers who will not discard their theories about the effects of microwave radiation on organisms (C) demonstrating that effects of microwave radiation are different from those of other forms of radiation (D) analyzing the mechanism by which an organism maintains its bodily temperature in a changing thermal environment?C? (E) discussing the importance of thermoreceptors in the control of the internal temperature of an organism 2. The author makes which of the following points about innate mechanisms for heat production? I. They are governed by thermoreceptors inside the body of the organism rather than at the surface. II. They are a less effective means of compensating for gross changes in temperature than behavioral strategies. III. They are not affected by microwave radiation. (A) I only (B) I and II only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only?B? (E) I, II, and III 3. Which of the following would be the most logical topic for the author to take up (take up: ??) in the paragraph following the final paragraph of the selection? (A) A suggestion for new research to be done on the effects of microwaves on animals and human beings (B) An analysis of the differences between microwave radiation (C) A proposal that the use of microwave radiation be prohibited because it is dangerous (D) A survey of the literature on the effects of microwave radiation on human beings?A? (E) A discussion of the strategies used by various species to control hyperthermia 4. The author’s strategy in lines 39-42 is to (A) introduce a hypothetical example to dramatize a point (B) propose an experiment to test a scientific hypothesis (C) cite a case study to illustrate a general contention (D) produce a counterexample to disprove an opponent’s theory?A? (E) speculate about the probable consequences of a scientific phenomenon 5. The author implies that the proponents of the theory that microwave radiation acts on organisms in the same way as other forms of radiation based their conclusions primarily on (A) laboratory research (B) unfounded assumption (C) control group surveys (D) deductive reasoning?B? (E) causal investigation 6. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) genial and conversational (B) alarmed and disparaging (C) facetious and cynical (D) scholarly and noncommittal (noncommittal: adj.????, ??????)?E? (E) scholarly and concerned 7. The author is primarily concerned with (A) pointing out weaknesses in a popular scientific theory (B) developing a hypothesis to explain a scientific phenomenon (C) reporting on new research on the effects of microwave radiation (D) criticizing the research methods of earlier investigators?A? (E) clarifying ambiguities in the terminology used to describe a phenomenon Passage 72 (9/22) Since Would War II considerable advances have been made in the area of health-care services. These include better access to health care (particularly for the poor and minorities), improvements in physical plants, and increased numbers of physicians and other health personnel. All have played a part in the recent improvement in life expectancy (life expectancy: n.????(=expectation of life)). But there is mounting criticism of the large remaining gaps in access, unbridled cost inflation, the further fragmentation of service, excessive indulgence in wasteful high-technology “gadgeteering,” and a breakdown in doctor-patient relationships. In recent years (in recent years: ?????) proposed panaceas and new programs, small and large, have proliferated at a feverish pace and disappointments multiply at almost the same rate. This has led to an increased pessimism—“everything has been tried and nothing works”—which sometimes borders on cynicism or even nihilism. It is true that the automatic “pass through” of rapidly spiraling costs (spiraling costs: ????????) to government and insurance carriers, which was set in a publicized environment of “the richest nation in the world,” produced for a time (for a time: adv.??, ??) a sense of unlimited resources and allowed to develop a mood whereby every practitioner and institution could “do his own thing” without undue concern for the “Medical Commons.” The practice of full-cost reimbursement encouraged capital investment and now the industry is overcapitalized. Many cities have hundreds of excess hospital beds; hospitals have proliferated a superabundance of high-technology equipment; and structural ostentation and luxury were the order of the day (order of the day: ??,?????,??). In any given day, one-fourth of all community beds are vacant; expensive equipment is underused or, worse, used unnecessarily. Capital investment brings rapidly rising operating costs (operating costs: ????,????). Yet, in part, this pessimism derives from expecting too much of health care. It must be realized that care is, for most people, a painful experience, often accompanied by fear and unwelcome results. Although there is vast room for improvement, health care will always retain some unpleasantness and frustration. Moreover, the capacities of medical science are limited. Humpty Dumpty (???????????) cannot always be put back together again. Too many physicians are reluctant to admit their limitations to patients; too many patients and families are unwilling to accept such realities. Nor is it true that everything has been tried and nothing works, as shown by the prepaid group practice plans of the Kaiser Foundation and at Puget Sound. In the main (in the main: adv.???), however, such undertakings have been drowned by a veritable flood of public and private moneys which have supported and encouraged the continuation of conventional practices and subsidized their shortcomings on a massive, almost unrestricted scale. Except for the most idealistic and dedicated, there were no incentives to seek change or to practice self-restraint or frugality. In this atmosphere, it is not fair to condemn as failures all attempted experiments; it may be more accurate to say many never had a fair trial. 1. The author implies that the Kaiser Foundation and Puget Sound plans (lines 47-48) differed from other plans by (A) encouraging capital investment (B) requiring physicians to treat the poor (C) providing incentives for cost control (D) employing only dedicated and idealistic doctors?C? (E) relying primarily on public funding 2. The author mentions all of the following as consequences of full-cost reimbursement EXCEPT (A) rising operating costs (B) underused hospital facilities (C) overcapitalization (D) overreliance on expensive equipment?E? (E) lack of services for minorities 3. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) light-hearted and amused (B) objective but concerned (C) detached and unconcerned (D) cautious but sincere?B? (E) enthusiastic and enlightened 4. According to the author, the “pessimism” mentioned at line 35 is partly attributable to the fact that (A) there has been little real improvement in health-care services (B) expectations about health-care services are sometimes unrealistic (C) large segments of the population find it impossible to get access to health-care services (D) advances in technology have made health care service unaffordable?B? (E) doctors are now less concerned with patient care 5. The author cites the prepaid plans in lines 46-48 as (A) counterexamples to the claim that nothing has worked (B) examples of health-care plans that were over-funded (C) evidence that health-care services are fragmented (D) proof of the theory that no plan has been successful?A? (E) experiments that yielded disappointing results 6. It can be inferred that the sentence “Humpty Dumpty cannot always be put back together again” means that (A) the cost of health-care services will not decline (B) some people should not become doctors (C) medical care is not really essential to good health (D) illness is often unpleasant and even painful?E? (E) medical science cannot cure every ill 7. With which of the following descriptions of the system for the delivery of health-care services would the author most likely agree? (A) It is biased in favor of doctors and against patients. (B) It is highly fragmented and completely ineffective (C) It has not embraced new technology rapidly enough (D) It is generally effective but can be improved?D? (E) It discourages people from seeking medical care 8. Which of the following best describes the logical structure of the selection? (A) The third paragraph is intended as a refutation of the first and second paragraphs. (B) The second and third paragraphs explain and put into perspective the points made in the first paragraph. (C) The second and third paragraphs explain and put into perspective the points made in the first paragraph. (D) The first paragraph describes a problem, and the second and third paragraphs present two horns of a dilemma.?C? (E) The first paragraph describes a problem, the second its causes, and the third a possible solution. 9. The author’s primary concern is to (A) criticize physicians and health-care administrators for investing in technologically advanced equipment (B) examine some problems affecting delivery of health-care services and assess their severity (C) defend the medical community from charges that health-care has not improved since World War II (D) analyze the reasons for the health-care industry’s inability to provide quality care to all segments of the population?B? (E) describe the peculiar economic features of the health-care industry that are the causes of spiraling medical costs Passage 73 (10/22) During the Victorian period, women writers were measured against a social rather than a literary ideal. Hence, it was widely thought that novels by women should be modest, religious, sensitive, guileless, and chaste, like their authors. Many Victorian women writers took exception to (take exception to: v.??) this belief, however, resisting the imposition of nonliterary restrictions on their work. Publishers soon discovered that the gentlest and most iddylike female novelists were tough-minded and relentless when their professional integrity (firm adherence to a code of especially moral or artistic values: INCORRUPTIBILITY) was at stake (at stake: adv.????, ??). Keenly aware of their artistic responsibilities, these women writers would not make concessions to secure commercial success. The Brontes, George Eliot, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and their lesser-known contemporaries repudiated, in their professional lives, the courtesy that Victorian ladies might exact from Victorian gentlemen. Desiring rigorous and impartial criticism, most women writers did not wish reviewers to be kind to them if kindness meant overlooking their literary weaknesses or flattering them on their accomplishments simply because of their sex. They had expected derisive reviews; instead, they found themselves confronted with generous criticism, which they considered condescending. Elizabeth Barrett Browning labeled it “the comparative respect which means... absolute scorn.” For their part, Victorian critics were virtually obsessed with finding the place of the woman writer so as to judge her appropriately. Many bluntly admitted that they thought Jane Eyre a masterpiece if written by a man, shocking or disgusting if written by a woman. Moreover, reactionary reviewers were quick to associate an independent heroine with carefully concealed revolutionary doctrine; several considered Jane Eyre a radical feminist document, as indeed it was. To Charlotte Bronte, who had demanded dignity and independence without any revolutionary intent and who considered herself politically conservative, their criticism was an affront. Such criticism bunched all women writers together rather than treating them as individual artists. Charlotte Bronte’s experience served as a warning to other women writers about the prejudices that immediately associated them with feminists and others thought to be political radicals. Irritated, and anxious to detach themselves from a group stereotype, many expressed relatively conservative views on the emancipation of women (except on the subject of women’s education) and stressed their own domestic accomplishments. However, in identifying themselves with women who had chosen the traditional career path of marriage and motherhood, these writers encountered still another threat to their creativity. Victorian prudery rendered virtually all experience that was uniquely feminine unprintable. No nineteenth-century woman dared to describe childbirth, much less her sexual passion. Men could not write about their sexual experiences either, but they could write about sport, business, crime, and war—all activities from which women were barred. Small wonder no woman produced a novel like War and Peace. What is amazing is the sheer volume of first-rate prose and poetry that Victorian women did write. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) refute the contention that no Victorian woman writer produced a novel like War and Peace (B) trace the historical relationship between radical feminist politics and the Victorian novels written by women (C) show how three Victorian women writers responded to criticism of their novels (D) resolve the apparent contradiction between Victorian women writers’ literary innovativeness and their rather conservative social views?E? (E) describe the discrepancy between Victorian society’s expectations of women writers and the expectations of the women writers themselves 2. According to the passage, Victorian women writers “would not make concessions” (line 13) to publishers primarily because they felt that such concessions would (A) require them to limit descriptions of uniquely feminine experiences (B) compromise their artistic integrity (C) make them vulnerable to stereotyping by critics (D) provide no guarantee that their works would enjoy commercial success?B? (E) go against (go against: v.??, ??, ???) the traditions of English letters 3. The passage suggests that Victorian criticism of works by women writers was (A) indulgent (B) perfunctory (C) resourceful (D) timely?A? (E) apolitical 4. The author of the passage quotes Elizabeth Barrett Browning (lines 28-29) in order to demonstrate that Victorian women writers (A) possessed both talent and literary creativity (B) felt that their works were misunderstood (C) refused to make artistic concessions (D) feared derisive criticism?E? (E) resented condescending criticism 5. It can be inferred from the passage that Charlotte Bronte considered the criticisms leveled at Jane Eyre by reactionary reviewers “an affront” (line 43) primarily because such criticism (A) exposed her carefully concealed revolutionary doctrine to public scrutiny (B) assessed the literary merit of the novel on the basis of its author’s sex (C) assumed that her portrayal of an independent woman represented revolutionary ideas (D) labeled the novel shocking and disgusting without just cause?C? (E) denied that the novel was a literary masterpiece 6. Which of the following statements best describes the “threat” mentioned in line 57 of the passage? (A) Critics demanded to know the sex of the author before passing judgment on the literary quality of a novel. (B) Women writers were prevented from describing in print experiences about which they had special knowledge. (C) The reading public tended to prefer historical novels to novels describing contemporary London society. (D) Publishers were urging Victorian women writers to publish under their own names rather than under pseudonyms.?B? (E) Women writers’ domestic responsibilities tended to take time away from their writing. 7. The passage suggests that the attitude of Victorian women writers toward being grouped together by critics was most probably one of (A) relief (B) indifference (C) amusement (D) annoyance?D? (E) ambivalence 8. It can be inferred from the passage that a Victorian woman writer who did not consider herself a feminist would most probably have approved of women’s (A) entering the noncombat military (B) entering the publishing business (C) entering a university (D) joining the stock exchange?C? (E) joining a tennis club 9. The passage suggests that the literary creativity of Victorian women writers could have been enhanced if (A) women had been allowed to write about a broader range of subjects (B) novels of the period had been characterized by greater stylistic and structural ingenuity (C) a reserved and decorous style had been a more highly valued literary ideal (D) publishers had sponsored more new women novelists?A? (E) critics had been kinder in reviewing the works of women novelists Passage 74 (11/22) Agricultural progress provided the stimulus necessary to set off (set off: v.??, ???) economic expansion in medieval France. As long as those who worked the land were barely able to ensure their own subsistence (the minimum (as of food and shelter) necessary to support life) and that of their landlords, all other activities had to be minimal, but when food surpluses increased, it became possible to release more people for governmental, commercial, religious and cultural pursuits. However, not all the funds from the agricultural surplus were actually available for commercial investment. Much of the surplus, in the form of food increases, probably went to raise the subsistence level; an additional amount, in the form of currency gained from the sale of food, went into the royal treasury to be used in waging war. Although Louis VII of France levied a less crushing tax burden on his subjects than did England’s Henry II, Louis VII did spend great sums on an unsuccessful crusade, and his vassals—both lay and ecclesiastic—took over spending where their sovereign stopped. Surplus funds were claimed both by the Church and by feudal landholders, whereupon (1: on which; 2: closely following and in consequence of which) cathedrals and castles mushroomed throughout France. The simultaneous progress of cathedral building and, for instance, vineyard expansion in Bordeaux (Bordeaux: n.??????) illustrates the very real competition for available capital between the Church and commercial interests; the former produced inestimable moral and artistic riches, but the latter had a stronger immediate impact upon gross national product. Moreover, though all wars by definition are defensive, the frequent crossings of armies that lived off (live off: v.??...?, ?...??) the land and impartially burned all the huts and barns on their path consumed considerable resources. Since demands on the agricultural surplus would have varied from year to year (from year to year: adv.??), we cannot precisely calculate their impact on the commercial growth of medieval France. But we must bear that impact in mind when estimating the assets that were likely to have been available for investment. No doubt castle and cathedral building was not totally barren of profit (for the builders, that is), and it produced intangible dividends of material and moral satisfaction for the community. Even wars handed back (hand back: ??) a fragment of what they took, at least to a few. Still, we cannot place on the same plane a primarily destructive activity and a constructive one, nor expect the same results from a new bell tower as from a new water mill (water mill: n.??, ?????). Above all, medieval France had little room for investment over and above the preservation of life. Granted that war cost much less than it does today, that the Church rendered all sorts of educational and recreational services that were unobtainable elsewhere, and that government was far less demanding than is the modern state—nevertheless, for medieval men and women, supporting commercial development required considerable economic sacrifice. 1. According to the passage, agricultural revenues in excess of the amount needed for subsistence were used by medieval kings to (A) patronize the arts (B) sponsor public recreation (C) wage war (D) build cathedrals?C? (E) fund public education 2. According to the passage, which of the following was an important source of revenue in medieval France? (A) Cheese (B) Wine (C) Wool (D) Olive oil?B? (E) Veal 3. The passage suggests that which of the following would have reduced the assets immediately available for commercial investment in medieval France? I. Renovation of a large cathedral II. A sharp increase in the birth rate III. An invasion of France by Henry II (A) III only (B) I and II only (C) I and III only (D) II and III only?E? (E) I, II, and III 4. It can be inferred from the passage that more people could enter government and the Church in medieval France because (A) the number of individual landholdings in heavily agricultural areas was beginning to increase (B) an increase in the volume of international trade had brought an increase in the population of cities (C) a decrease in warfare had allowed the king to decrease the size of the army (D) food producers could grow more food than they and their families needed to survive?D? (E) landlords were prospering and thus were demanding a smaller percentage of tenants’ annual yields 5. The author implies that the reason we cannot expect the same results from a new bell tower as from a new water mill is that (A) bell towers yield an intangible dividend (B) bell towers provide material satisfaction (C) water mills cost more to build than bell towers (D) water mills divert funds from commerce?A? (E) water mills might well be destroyed by war 6. The author of the passage most probably bases his central argument on which of the following theoretical assumptions often made by economists? (A) Different people should be taxed in proportion to the benefit they can expect to receive from public activity. (B) Perfect competition exists only in the case where no farmer, merchant, or laborer controls a large enough share of the total market to influence market price. (C) A population wealthy enough to cut back its rate of consumption can funnel the resulting savings into the creation of capital. (D) A full-employment economy must always, to produce one good, give up producing another good.?C? (E) There is a universal tendency for population, unless checked by food supply, to increase in a geometric progression. 7. The author suggests that commercial expansion in medieval France “required considerable economic sacrifice” (lines 59-60) primarily for which of the following reasons? (A) Cathedrals cost more to build and rebuild than did castles. (B) The numerous wars fought during the period left the royal treasury bankrupt. (C) Louis VII levied a more crushing tax burden on his subjects than did Henry II. (D) Although much of the available surplus had been diverted into vineyard expansion, the vineyards had not yet begun to produce.?E? (E) Although more food was being produced, the subsistence level was not very far above the minimum required to sustain life. 8. The passage implies that which of the following yielded the lowest dividend to medieval men and women relative to its cost? (A) Warfare (B) Vineyard expansion (C) Water mill construction (D) Castle building?A? (E) Cathedral building 9. Which of the following statements best expresses the central idea of the passage? (A) Commercial growth in medieval France may be accurately computed by calculating the number of castles and cathedrals built during the period. (B) Competition between the Church and the feudal aristocracy for funds created by agricultural surplus demonstrably slowed the economic growth of medieval France. (C) Despite such burdens as war and capital expansion by landholders, commerce in medieval France expanded steadily as the agricultural surplus increased. (D) Funds actually available for commerce in medieval France varied with the demands placed on the agricultural surplus.?D? (E) The simultaneous progress of vineyard expansion and building in medieval France gives evidence of a rapidly expanding economy. Passage 75 (12/22) For years scholars have contrasted slavery in the United States and in Brazil, stimulated by the fact that racial patterns assumed such different aspects in the two countries after emancipation. Brazil never developed a system of rigid segregation of the sort (of the sort: ???;???...., ?????...) that replaced slavery in the United States, and its racial system was fluid because its definition of race was based as much on characteristics such as economic status as on skin color. Until recently, the most persuasive explanation for these differences was that Portuguese institutions especially the Roman Catholic church and Roman civil law (civil law: n.??), promoted recognition of the slave’s humanity. The English colonists, on the other hand, constructed their system of slavery out of whole cloth (whole cloth: pure fabrication usually used in the phrase out of whole cloth). There were simply no precedents in English common law (common law: ???), and separation of church and state barred Protestant clergy from the role that priests assumed in Brazil. But the assumption that institutions alone could so powerfully affect the history of two raw and malleable frontier (a new field for exploitative or developmental activity) countries seems, on reexamination, untenable. Recent studies focus instead on a particular set of contrasting economic circumstances and demographic profiles at significant periods in the histories of the two countries. Persons of mixed race quickly appeared in both countries. In the United States they were considered to be Black, a social definition that was feasible because they were in the minority. In Brazil, it was not feasible. Though intermarriage was illegal in both countries, the laws were unenforceable in Brazil since Whites formed a small minority in an overwhelmingly Black population. Manumission for persons of mixed race was also easier in Brazil, particularly in the nineteenth century when in the United States it was hedged about with difficulties. Furthermore, a shortage of skilled workers in Brazil provided persons of mixed race with the opportunity to learn crafts and trades, even before general emancipation, whereas in the United States entry into these occupations was blocked by Whites sufficiently numerous to fill the posts. The consequence was the development in Brazil of a large class of persons of mixed race, proficient in skilled trades and crafts, who stood waiting as a community for freed slaves to join. There should be no illusion that Brazilian society after emancipation was color-blind. Rather, the large population of persons of mixed race produced a racial system that included a third status, a bridge between the Black caste and the White, which could be traversed by means of economic or intellectual achievement, marriage, or racial heritage. The strict and sharp line between the races so characteristic of the United States in the years immediately after emancipation was simply absent. With the possible exception of New Orleans, no special “place” developed in the United States for persons of mixed race. Sad to say, every pressure of society worked to prevent their attaining anything approximating the economic and social position available to their counterparts in Brazil. 1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with (A) contrasting the systems of slavery that were established in Brazil and in the United States (B) criticizing the arguments of those scholars who considered religion and law to be the determinants of the systems of slavery in Brazil and in the United States (C) describing the factors currently thought to be responsible for the differences in the racial patterns that evolved in Brazil and in the United States (D) advocating further study of the differences between the racial systems that developed in Brazil and in the United States?C? (E) pointing out the factors that made the status of Blacks in the United States lower than that of Blacks in Brazil 2. According to the passage, early scholars explained the differences between the racial systems that developed in the United States and in Brazil as the result of which of the following factors? (A) Institutional (B) Demographic (C) Economic (D) Geographical?A? (E) Historical 3. In the context in which it is found, the phrase “constructed their system of slavery out of whole cloth” (lines 15-16) implies that the system of slavery established by the English settlers was (A) based on fabrications and lies (B) tailored to the settlers’ particular circumstances (C) intended to serve the needs of a frontier economy (D) developed without direct influence from the settlers’ religion or legal system?D? (E) evolved without giving recognition to the slave’s humanity 4. The author implies that the explanation proposed by early scholars for the differences between the systems of slavery in the United States and in Brazil is (A) stimulating to historians and legal scholars (B) more powerful than more recent explanations (C) persuasive in spite of minor deficiencies (D) excessively legalistic in its approach?E? (E) questionable in light of current scholarly work 5. The author mentions intermarriage, manumission, and the shortage of skilled workers in Brazil primarily in order to establish which of the following? (A) The environment in which Brazil’s racial system developed (B) The influence of different legal and economic conditions in Brazil and the United States on the life-style of persons of mixed race (C) The origins of Brazil’s large class of free skilled persons of mixed race (D) The differences between treatment of slaves in Brazil and in the United States?C? (E) The difficulties faced by persons of mixed race in the United States, as compared to those in Brazil 6. According to the passage, Brazilian laws prohibiting intermarriage were ineffective because Brazil had a (A) Portuguese Catholic heritage (B) Small minority of whites (C) Liberal set of laws concerning manumission (D) Large number of freed slaves?B? (E) Shortage of people in the skilled crafts and trades 7. The use of quotation marks around the word “place” (line 59) suggests that the author intended to convey which of the following? (A) An ambivalent attitude toward the city of New Orleans (B) A negative attitude toward the role of race in determining status in the United States (C) A critical comment about the maltreatment of persons of mixed race in the United States (D) A double meaning, indicating both a social status and a physical location?D? (E) An ambiguity, referring to either the role persons of mixed race actually played, or the role they were assigned by the society 8. With which of the following statements regarding human behavior would the author of the passage be most likely to agree? (A) Only a fool or a political candidate would sing very loudly the glories of the institutions of Western culture. (B) Contact sports—displacements of our abiding impulses to kill—speak of essential human behavior more truthfully than all the theories of psychologists and historians. (C) Family, church, political party: these are the strong foundations of history and human behavior. (D) Money and its pursuit: an exploration of that theme will chart accurately the development of civilizations and the determinants of human behavior.?E? (E) The circumstances in which humans find themselves—more than treasured beliefs or legal prescriptions—mold human behavior. Passage 76 (13/22) Desertification, the creation of desert-like conditions where none had existed before, is the result of the vagaries of weather and climate or the mismanagement of the land or, in most cases, some combination of both. Such ecological deterioration in the Sahel (sahel: ????(??) ) has been linked in several ways to the increased size of livestock herds. During the fifteen years preceding 1968, a period of extremely favorable rainfall, the pastoralists (?(?)?) moved into the marginal regions in the north with relatively large herds. However, with the onset of a series of dry years beginning at the end of the rainy season in 1967, the pastoral populations found themselves overtaxing very marginal rangelands, with the result that the nomads viewed themselves as victims of a natural disaster. The mistaken idea that drought is an unexpected event has often been used to excuse the fact that long-range planning has failed to take rainfall variability into account. People blame the climate for agricultural failures in semiarid regions and make it a scapegoat for faulty population and agricultural policies. Deterioration and ultimately desertification in the Sahel and in other ecosystems can be combated only if an ecologically realistic carrying capacity for the rangelands is determined. Although there appears to be widespread agreement that such a determination would be significant, there has been little agreement on how to make operational the concept of carrying capacity, defined as the amount of grazing stock that the pasture can support without deterioration of either the pasture or the stock. Should the carrying capacity (carrying capacity:????) be geared to the best, the average, or the poorest years? Which combination of statistical measures would be most meaningful for the planning of long-term development of rangelands? On which variables should such an assessment be based, vegetation, rainfall, soil, ground and surface water, or managerial capabilities? Such inconclusiveness within the scientific community, while understandable, creates confusion for the land managers, who often decide to take no action or who decide that all scientific suggestions are of equal weight and, therefore, indiscriminately choose any one of those suggested. Given the downward spiral of land deterioration, it becomes essential that an ecologically acceptable carrying capacity be established and enforced. It will also be crucial that land managers know what statistical and quasi-statistical measures actually mean: no single number can adequately describe the climate regime of an arid or semiarid region. Land managers must supplement such terms as the “mean” with more informative statistical measures to characterize adequately the variability of the climate. The understanding of this high degree of variability will serve to remove one of the major obstacles to resolving the perennial problems of the Sahel and of other arid or semiarid regions. 1. The author is primarily concerned with (A) criticizing a social attitude (B) suggesting an approach to solving a problem (C) explaining the mechanics of a process (D) defending the theories of ecological scientists?B? (E) establishing criteria for an experiment 2. According to the passage, which of the following contributed to the desertification of the Sahel?????D?? I. The size of the livestock herds grazing on the land II. The quality of the land in the Sahel III. The amount of rainfall after 1967 (A) I only (B) II only (C) III only (D) I and III only?E? (E) I, II, and III 3. It can be inferred from the passage that the nomadic tribes who moved into the marginal regions of the Sahel did NOT (A) enlarge the size of their livestock herds (B) conserve water after the drought began (C) live in the Sahel after 1968 (D) expect a drastic change in weather conditions?D? (E) seek governmental aid in overcoming drought conditions 4. It can be inferred from the passage that the concept of the carrying capacity of land is (A) still hypothetical rather than practical (B) basically political rather than ecological (C) independent of climatic conditions (D) relatively unknown among ecologists?A? (E) generally misrepresented by ecologists 5. Which of the following best states the author’s view concerning the relationship between the ecological scientist and the land manager? (A) The scientist has not provided the manager with clear guidelines that can be used in regulating the productivity of land. (B) The scientist has provided theories that are too detailed for the manager to use successfully. (C) The scientist and the manager, in attempting to regulate the use of semiarid land, have ignored the traditional behavior patterns of pastoral communities. (D) The manager has misunderstood and hence misapplied the suggestions of the scientist.?A? (E) The manager has chosen from among the scientist’s suggestions those that are economically rather than ecologically safe. 6. With which of the following statements concerning desertification would the author be most likely to agree? (A) It is the result of factors beyond the control of science. (B) It is a problem largely affecting arid regions. (C) It could be prevented if land managers understood statistics. (D) It is not always the result of drastic climate changes alone.?D? (E) It is not attributable to faulty agricultural policies. 7. According to the passage, a statistical description of the climate regime of an arid or semiarid region would probably be (A) misleading (B) impossible (C) complex (D) meaningless?C? (E) abstract 8. The tone of the passage can best be described as (A) flippant (B) objective (C) aggressive (D) apologetic?B? (E) unconcerned Passage 77 (14/22) The promise of finding long-term technological solutions to the problem of world food shortages seems difficult to fulfill. Many innovations that were once heavily supported and publicized, such as fish-protein concentrate and protein from algae grown on petroleum substrates, have since fallen by the wayside. The proposals themselves were technically feasible, but they proved to be economically unviable and to yield food products culturally unacceptable to their consumers. Recent innovations such as opaque-2 maize, Antarctic krill, and the wheat-rye hybrid triticale (triticale: n.(?????????)?????????,???) seem more promising, but it is too early to predict their ultimate fate. One characteristic common to unsuccessful food innovations has been that, even with extensive government support, they often have not been technologically adapted or culturally acceptable to the people for whom they had been developed. A successful new technology, therefore, must fit the entire sociocultural system in which it is to find a place. Security of crop yield, practicality of storage, palatability, and costs are much more significant than had previously been realized by the advocates of new technologies. For example, the better protein quality in tortillas (tortilla: n.?????) made from opaque-2 maize will be of only limited benefit to a family on the margin of subsistence if the new maize is not culturally acceptable or is more vulnerable to insects. The adoption of new food technologies depends on more than these technical and cultural considerations; economic factors and governmental policies also strongly influence the ultimate success of any innovation. Economists in the Anglo-American tradition have taken the lead in investigating the economics of technological innovation. Although they exaggerate in claiming that profitability is the key factor guiding technical change—they completely disregard the substantial effects of culture—they are correct in stressing the importance of profits. Most technological innovations in agriculture can be fully used only by large landowners and are only adopted if these profit-oriented business people believe that the innovation will increase their incomes. Thus, innovations that carry high rewards for big agribusiness groups will be adopted even if they harm segments of the population and reduce the availability of food in a country. Further, should a new technology promise to alter substantially the profits and losses associated with any production system, those with economic power will strive to maintain and improve their own positions. Since large segments of the populations of many developing countries are close to the subsistence margin and essentially powerless, they tend to be the losers in this system unless they are aided by a government policy that takes into account the needs of all sectors of the economy. Therefore, although technical advances in food production and processing will perhaps be needed to ensure food availability, meeting food needs will depend much more on equalizing economic power among the various segments of the populations within the developing countries themselves. 1. Which of the following best describes the organization of the first paragraph? (A) A suggestion is made and arguments in its favor are provided. (B) A criticism is levied and an alternative proposal is suggested. (C) A generalization is advanced and supporting evidence is provided. (D) An example is analyzed and general conclusions are derived from it.?C? (E) A position is stated and evidence qualifying it is provided. 2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author was unable to assess the truth of which of the following statements about opaque-2 maize? (A) It is a more recent innovation than the use of fish-protein concentrate. (B) It can be stored as easily as other varieties of maize. (C) It is more popular than the wheat-rye hybrid triticale. (D) It produces tortillas of greater protein content than do other varieties of maize.?E? (E) It is more susceptible to insects than are other varieties of maize. 3. The passage mentions all of the following as factors important to the success of a new food crop EXCEPT the (A) practicality of storage of the crop (B) security of the crop yield (C) quality of the crop’s protein (D) cultural acceptability of the crop?C? (E) costs of production of the crop 4. According to the passage, the use of Antarctic krill as a food is an innovation whose future is (A) basically gloomy but still uncertain (B) somewhat promising but very tentative (C) generally bright and virtually assured (D) tied to the success of opaque-2 maize?B? (E) endangered by certain technical problems 5. The author suggests that, in most developing countries, extensive government intervention accompanying the introduction of a food innovation will (A) usually be sufficient to guarantee the financial success of the innovation (B) be necessary to ensure that the benefits of the innovation will be spread throughout the society (C) provide the incentive necessary to convince landowners to try the innovation (D) generally cost the country more than will be earned by the innovation?B? (E) normally occur only when the innovation favors large landowners 6. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements concerning the solution to food shortages in developing countries? (A) The introduction of technological innovations to reap profits might alleviate food shortages to some degree, but any permanent solution can come only from effective governmental intervention in the socioeconomic system. (B) Innovations in agricultural technology will be of little help, and perhaps even harmful, in combating food shortages, no matter how well designed they are to suit local circumstances. (C) Long-lasting solutions will not be found until large landowners adopt improvements that will make production more efficient and thus more profitable. (D) In order to achieve a meaningful solution to the problem of food shortages, the tastes of the general population must be educated to accept the new food products of modern agricultural technology.?A? (E) Although a short-term solution to food shortages can be achieved by importing food from other countries, a long-term solution requires a restructuring of the countries’ socioeconomic system. 7. The first paragraph of the passage best supports which of the following statements? (A) Too much publicity can harm the chances for the success of a new food innovation. (B) Innovations that produce culturally acceptable crops will generally be successful. (C) A food-product innovation can be technically feasible and still not be economically viable. (D) It is difficult to decide whether a food-product innovation has actually been a success.?C? (E) Triticale will not be a success as a food source for most developing countries. 8. The author provides a sustained argument to support which of the following assertions? (A) Profitability is neither necessary nor sufficient for a new technology to be adopted. (B) Profitability is the key factor guiding technological change. (C) Economic factors and governmental policies strongly influence the ultimate success of any innovation. (D) Opaque-2 maize is of limited benefit to poor families in developing countries.?C? (E) Innovations carrying high rewards for big agribusiness groups harm the poor. 9. The primary purpose of the passage is to discuss the (A) means of assessing the extent of the world food shortage (B) difficulties of applying technological solutions to the problem of food shortages (C) costs of introducing a new food technology into a developing country (D) Anglo-American bias of those trying to alleviate world food problems?B? (E) nature of the new technological innovations in the area of food production Passage 78 (15/22) In Roman times, defeated enemies were generally put to death (put to death: v.??) as criminals for having offended the emperor of Rome. In the Middle Ages, however, the practice of ransoming, or returning prisoners in exchange for (in exchange for: ??, ????) money, became common. Though some saw this custom as a step towards a more humane society, the primary reasons behind it were economic rather than humanitarian. In those times, rulers had only a limited ability to raise taxes. They could neither force their subjects to fight nor pay them to do so. The promise of material compensation in the form of goods and ransom was therefore the only way of inducing combatants to participate in a war. In the Middle Ages (Middle Ages: n. ????the???????????), the predominant incentive for the individual soldier to participate in a war was the expectation of spoils. Although collecting ransom clearly brought financial gain, keeping a prisoner and arranging for his exchange had its costs. Consequently, several procedures were devised to reduce transaction costs. One such device was a rule asserting that the prisoner had to assess his own value. This compelled the prisoner to establish a value without much distortion; indicating too low a value would increase the captive’s chances of being killed, while indicating too high a value would either ruin him financially or create a prohibitively expensive ransom that would also result in death. A second means of reducing costs was the practice of releasing a prisoner on his word of honor (on one's word of honor: adv.?????). This procedure was advantageous to both parties since the captor was relieved of the expense of keeping the prisoner while the captive had freedom of movement. The captor also benefited financially by having his captive raise the ransom himself. This “parole” was a viable practice since the released prisoner risked recapture or retaliation against his family. Moreover, in medieval society, breaking one’s word (break one's word: v.??, ??) had serious consequences. When, for example, King Francois I broke his word to the Emperor Charles V in 1525, his reputation suffered immensely. A third method of reducing costs was the use of specialized institutions to establish contact between the two parties. Two types of institutions emerged: professional dealers who acted as brokers, and members of religious orders (a community under a religious rule; especially: one requiring members to take solemn vows) who acted as neutral intermediaries. Dealers advanced money for the ransom and charged interest on the loan. Two of the religious orders that became intermediaries were the Mercedarians and the Trinitarians, who between them arranged the ransom of nearly one million prisoners. 1. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) discuss the economic basis of the medieval practice of exchanging prisoners for ransom (B) examine the history of the treatment of prisoners of war (C) emphasize the importance of a warrior’s “word of honor” during the Middle Ages (D) explore three ways of reducing the costs of ransom?A? (E) demonstrate why warriors of the Middle Ages looked forward to battles 2. It can be inferred from the passage that a medieval soldier (A) was less likely to kill captured members of opposing armies than was a soldier of the Roman Empire (B) was similar to a 20th-century terrorist in that he operated on a basically independent level and was motivated solely by economic incentives (C) had few economic options and chose to fight because it was the only way to earn an adequate living (D) was motivated to spare prisoners’ lives by humanitarian rather than economic ideals?A? (E) had no respect for his captured enemies since captives were typically regarded as weak 3. Which of the following best describes the change in policy from executing prisoners in Roman times to ransoming prisoners in the Middle Ages? (A) The emperors of Rome demanded more respect than did medieval rulers and thus Roman subjects went to greater lengths to defend their nation. (B) It was a reflection of the lesser degree of direct control medieval rulers had over their subjects. (C) It became a show of strength and honor for warriors of the Middle Ages to be able to capture and return their enemies. (D) Medieval soldiers were not as humanitarian as their ransoming practices might have indicated.?B? (E) Medieval soldiers demonstrated more concern about economic policy than did their Roman counterparts. 4. The author uses the phrase “without much distortion” (line 26) in order (A) to indicate that prisoners would fairly assess their worth (B) to emphasize the important role medieval prisoners played in determining whether they should be ransomed (C) to explain how prisoners often paid more than an appropriate ransom in order to increase their chances for survival (D) suggest that captors and captives often had understanding relationships?A? (E) to show that when in prison a soldier’s view could become distorted 5. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as actions that were taken to ensure that ransoming prisoners was a profitable operation EXCEPT (A) each prisoner was made to designate the amount of ransom to be paid for his return (B) prisoners were released on the condition that they guaranteed that their ransoms would be paid (C) professional intermediaries were employed to facilitate the smooth exchange of prisoner and ransom at a price to the prisoner (D) religious orders acted as impartial mediators by arranging the trade-off (trade-off n.??, ??, ??, ??) of ransom and prisoner?E? (E) medieval rulers promised to aid soldiers in their efforts to collect ransom 6. In the author’s opinion, a soldier’s decision to spare an adversary’s life be linked historically to (A) the economic relationship of the warring states (B) the case with which a soldier could capture and subsequently imprison his enemy (C) the economic gain from taking an enemy prisoner rather than killing him in combat (D) technological advances in weaponry?C? (E) the desire for soldiers to uphold their word of honor 7. It can be inferred from the passage that the process of arranging ransoms during medieval times was (A) more lucrative for medieval soldiers and kings than the winning of spoils (B) a procedure so costly that it was not economically worthwhile for the captors (C) futile for the captive since he risked recapture even after his ransom was paid (D) a potential source of income for others aside from the captors of the prisoners?D? (E) handled only through Mercedarian or Trinitarian intermediaries 8. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage? (A) An assertion is made, briefly explained, and then several examples that refute the assertion are given. (B) A hypothesis is offered, carefully qualified, and then supporting data is analyzed. (C) A generally accepted historical viewpoint is presented in order to introduce discussion of its strengths and limitations. (D) A historical analysis is made of a phenomenon and supporting details are offered.?D? (E) A historical dispute is introduced, and the case for one side is examined in detail. Passage 79 (16/22) In most earthquakes the Earth’s crust cracks like porcelain. Stress builds up (build up: v.??, ??, ??) until a fracture forms at a depth of a few kilometers and the crust slips to relieve the stress. Some earthquakes, however, take place hundreds of kilometers down in the Earth’s mantle, where high pressure makes rock so ductile that it flows instead of cracking, even under stress severe enough to deform it like putty. How can there be earthquakes at such depths? That such deep events do occur has been accepted only since 1927, when the seismologist Kiyoo Wadati convincingly demonstrated their existence. Instead of comparing the arrival times of seismic waves at different locations, as earlier researchers had done. Wadati relied on a time difference between the arrival of primary (P) waves and the slower secondary (S) waves. Because P and S waves travel at different but fairly constant speeds, the interval between their arrivals increases in proportion to (in proportion to: adv.?...???) the distance from the earthquake focus (earthquake focus: ??), or rupture point. For most earthquakes, Wadati discovered, the interval was quite short near the epicenter (epicenter: n.??, ??), the point on the surface where shaking is strongest. For a few events, however, the delay was long even at the epicenter. Wadati saw a similar pattern when he analyzed data on the intensity of shaking. Most earthquakes had a small area of intense shaking, which weakened rapidly with increasing distance from the epicenter, but others were characterized by a lower peak intensity, felt over a broader area. Both the P-S intervals and the intensity patterns suggested two kinds of earthquakes: the more common shallow events, in which the focus lay just under the epicenter, and deep events, with a focus several hundred kilometers down. The question remained: how can such quakes occur, given (in view of (in view of: adv.???, ??): CONSIDERING “given what she knew about others' lives, how could she complain about her own? Marilyn F.”) that mantle rock at a depth of more than 50 kilometers is too ductile to store enough stress to fracture? Wadati’s work suggested that deep events occur in areas (now called Wadati-Benioff zones) where one crustal plate is forced under another and descends into the mantle. The descending rock is substantially cooler than the surrounding mantle and hence is less ductile and much more liable to fracture. 1. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) demonstrating why the methods of early seismologists were flawed (B) arguing that deep events are poorly understood and deserve further study (C) defending a revolutionary theory about the causes of earthquakes and methods of predicting them (D) discussing evidence for the existence of deep events and the conditions that allow them to occur?C? (E) comparing the effects of shallow events with those of deep events 2. The author uses the comparisons to porcelain and putty (lines 2 and 8) in order to (A) explain why the Earth’s mantle is under great pressure (B) distinguish the earthquake’s epicenter from its focus (C) demonstrate the conditions under which a Wadati-Benioff zone forms (D) explain why S waves are slower than P waves?E? (E) illustrate why the crust will fracture but the mantle will not 3. It can be inferred from the passage that if the S waves from an earthquake arrive at a given location long after the P waves, which of the following must be true? (A) The earthquake was a deep event. (B) The earthquake was a shallow event. (C) The earthquake focus was distant. (D) The earthquake focus was nearby.?A? (E) The earthquake had a low peak intensity. 4. The method used by Wadati to determine the depths of earthquakes is most like which of the following? (A) Determining the depth of a well by dropping stones into the well and timing how long they take to reach the bottom (B) Determining the height of a mountain by measuring the shadow it casts at different times of the day (C) Determining the distance from a thunderstorm by timing the interval between the flash of a lightning bolt and the thunder it produces (D) Determining the distance between two points by counting the number of paces it takes to cover the distance and measuring a single pace?C? (E) Determining the speed at which a car is traveling by timing how long it takes to travel a known distance 5. The passage supports which of the following statements about the relationship between the epicenter and the focus of an earthquake? (A) P waves originate at the focus and S waves originate at the epicenter. (B) In deep events the epicenter and the focus are reversed. (C) In shallow events the epicenter and the focus coincide. (D) In both deep and shallow events the focus lies beneath the epicenter.?D? (E) The epicenter is in the crust, whereas the focus is in the mantle. 6. The passage suggests that which of the following must take place in order for any earthquake to occur? I. Stress must build up. II. Cool rock must descend into the mantle. III. A fracture must occur. (A) I only (B) II only (C) III only (D) I and III only?D? (E) I, II, and III 7. Information presented in the passage suggests that, compared with seismic activity at the epicenter of a shallow event, seismic activity at the epicenter of a deep event is characterized by (A) shorter P-S intervals and higher peak intensity (B) shorter P-S intervals and lower peak intensity (C) longer P-S intervals and similar peak intensity (D) longer P-S intervals and higher peak intensity?E? (E) longer P-S intervals and lower peak intensity 8. The passage suggests which of the following about the views held by researchers before 1927? (A) Some researchers did not believe that deep events could actually occur. (B) Many researchers rejected the use of P-S intervals for determining the depths of earthquakes. (C) Some researchers doubted that the mantle was too ductile to store the stress needed for an earthquake. (D) Most researchers expected P waves to be slower than S waves.?A? (E) Few researchers accepted the current model of how shallow events occur. 9. The author’s explanation of how deep events occur would be most weakened if which of the following were discovered to be true? (A) Deep events are far less common than shallow events. (B) Deep events occur in places other than where crustal plates meet. (C) Mantle rock is more ductile at a depth of several hundred kilometers than it is at 50 kilometers. (D) The speeds of both P and S waves are slightly greater than previously thought.?B? (E) Below 650 kilometers earthquakes cease to occur. Passage 80 (17/22) Most large corporations in the United States were once run by individual capitalists who owned enough stock to dominate the board of directors (board of directors: ???) and dictate company policy. Because putting such large amounts of stock on the market would only depress its value, they could not sell out (sell out: v.??, ??, ??) for a quick profit and instead had to concentrate on improving the long-term productivity of their companies. Today, with few exceptions, the stock of large United States corporations is held by large institutions—pension funds, for example—and because these institutions are prohibited by antitrust laws from owning a majority of a company’s stock and from actively influencing a company’s decision-making, they can enhance their wealth only by buying and selling stock in anticipation of fluctuations in its value. A minority shareholder is necessarily a short term trader. As a result, United States productivity is unlikely to improve unless shareholders and the managers of the companies in which they invest are encouraged to enhance long-term productivity (and hence long-term profitability), rather than simply to maximize short-term profits. Since the return of the old-style capitalist is unlikely, today’s short-term traders must be remade into tomorrow’s long-term capitalistic investors. The legal limits that now prevent financial institutions from acquiring a dominant shareholding position in a corporation should be removed, and such institutions (???SHOULD BE) encouraged to take a more active role in the operations of the companies in which they invest. In addition, any institution that holds twenty percent or more of a company’s stock should be forced to give the public one day’s notice of the intent to sell those shares. Unless the announced sale could be explained to the public on grounds other than anticipated future losses, the value of the stock would plummet and, like the old-time capitalists, major investors could cut their losses only by helping to restore their companies’ productivity. Such measures would force financial institutions to become capitalists whose success depends not on trading shares at the propitious moment, but on increasing the productivity of the companies in which they invest. 1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with doing which of the following? (A) Comparing two different approaches to a problem (B) Describing a problem and proposing a solution (C) Defending an established method (D) Presenting data and drawing conclusions from the data?B? (E) Comparing two different analyses of a current situation 2. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of majority shareholders in a corporation? (A) They make the corporation’s operational management decisions. (B) They are not allowed to own more than fifty percent of the corporation’s stock. (C) They cannot make quick profits by selling their stock in the corporation. (D) They are more interested in profits than in productivity.?D? (E) They cannot sell any of their stock in the corporation without giving the public advance notice. 3. According to the passage, the purpose of the requirement suggested in lines 30-33 would be which of the following? (A) To encourage institutional stockholders to sell stock that they believe will decrease in value (B) To discourage institutional stockholders from intervening in the operation of a company whose stock they own (C) To discourage short-term profit-taking by institutional stockholders (D) To encourage a company’s employees to take an active role in the ownership of stock in the company?C? (E) To encourage investors to diversify their stock holdings 4. Which of the following best explains the author’s statement that “A minority shareholder is necessarily a short-term trader” (lines 15-16)? (A) The only way a minority shareholder can make money from stocks is to buy and sell stocks as prices fluctuate over short periods of time. (B) Only a shareholder who owns a majority of a company’s stock can influence the trading price of the stock over a long period of time. (C) A minority shareholder is prohibited by law from buying stock and holding it for long-term profits. (D) Large institutions like pension funds cannot legally own a majority of any corporation’s stock.?A? (E) A minority shareholder rarely takes an interest in the decisions of a corporation’s board of directors. 5. The author suggests that which of the following is a true statement about people who typify the “old style capitalist” referred to in line 23? (A) They now rely on outdated management techniques. (B) They seldom engaged in short-term trading of the stock they owned. (C) They did not influence the investment policies of the corporations in which they invested. (D) They now play a much smaller role in the stock market as a result of antitrust legislation.?B? (E) They were primarily concerned with maximizing the short-term profitability of the corporations in which they owned stock. ANSWERS Passage 71 (8/22) C B A A B E A Passage 72 (9/22) C E B B A E D C B Passage 73 (10/22) E B A E C B D C A Passage 74 (11/22) C B E D A C E A D Passage 75 (12/22) C A D E C B D E Passage 76 (13/22) B E D A A D C B Passage 77 (14/22) C E C B B A C C B Passage 78 (15/22) A A B A E C D D Passage 79 (16/22) C E A C D D E A B Passage 80 (17/22) B D C A B