Cultural Anthropology.docx

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology can be best defined as the study of the various facets of what it means to be human Anthropology is a multidimensional subject in which various components are studied individually and as a whole to develop a better understanding of human existence In this lecture we will not only be developing an understanding of the definition of anthropology we will also be looking at what an anthropologist does In addition to this we will also be looking at the various branches of anthropology with a focus on cultural anthropology Definition of Anthropology Anthropology is derived from the Greek words anthropos for human and logos for study so if we take its literal meaning it would mean the study of humans In one sense this is an accurate description to the extent that it raises a wide variety of questions about the human existence However this literal definition isn t as accurate as it should be since a number of other disciplines such as sociology history psychology economics and many others also study human beings What sets anthropology apart from all these other subjects Anthropology is the study of people their origins their development and variations wherever and whenever they have been found on the face of the earth Of all the subjects that deal with the study of humans anthropology is by far the broadest in its scope In short anthropology aims to describe in the broadest sense what it means to be human Activities of an Anthropologist As we already know anthropology is the study of what it means to be human So the study of the influences that make us human is the focus of anthropologists Anthropologists study the various components of what its means to be human Branches of Anthropology Physical Anthropology Is the study of humans from a biological perspective Essentially this involves two broad areas of investigation Human paleontology - this sub branch deals with re-constructing the evolutionary record of the human existence and how humans evolved up to the present times Human variation - The second area deals with how why the physical traits of contemporary human populations vary across the world Archeology study of lives of people from the past by examining the material culture they have left behind Anthropological Linguistics the study of human speech and language Cultural Anthropology the study of cultural differences and similarities around the world Now that we have briefly defined the various branches of anthropology lets us now take an in- depth view of cultural anthropology Cultural Anthropology As we have discerned above cultural anthropology concerns itself with the study of cultural differences as well as the similarities around the world On a deeper level the branch of anthropology that deals with the study of specific contemporary cultures ethnography and the more general underlying patterns of human culture derived through cultural comparisons ethnology is called cultural anthropology Before cultural anthropologists can examine cultural differences and similarities throughout the world they must first describe the features of specific cultures in as much detail as possible These detailed descriptions ethnographies are the result of extensive field studies in which the anthropologists observes talks to and lives with the people under study On the other hand ethnology is the comparative study of contemporary cultures wherever they are found The primary objective of ethnology is to uncover general cultural principals rules that govern human behavior Areas of Specialization in Cultural Anthropology Urban Anthropology studies impact of urbanization on rural societies and the dynamics of life within cities Medical Anthropology studies biological and socio-cultural factors that effect health or prevalence of illness or disease in human societies Educational Anthropology studies processes of learning of both formal education institutions and informal systems which can use story telling or experiential learning IV Economic Anthropology studies how goods and services are produced distributed and consumed within different cultural contexts Psychological Anthropology studies relationship between cultures and the psychological makeup of individuals belonging to them Holistic and Integrative Approach Cultural anthropologists consider influences of nature and nurture across all locations and across different periods of time When various specialties of the discipline are viewed together they provide a comprehensive view of the human condition Common Responses to Cultural Difference Ethnocentrism a belief that one s own culture is not only the most desirable but also superior to that of others Cultural relativism looks at the inherent logic behind different cultures and practices in the attempt to understand them Relevance of Cultural Anthropology Cultural anthropology enhances understanding of differences and prevents oversimplified generalizations It increases self-knowledge about our own thinking values and behavior and helps develop cognitive complexity through integration interconnectedness and differentiation different aspects of a singular entity Cultural anthropology is also useful in facilitating meaningful interaction with other cultures and sub-cultures Useful Terms Components parts Paleontology specialized branch of physical anthropology that analyses the emergence and subsequent evolution of human physiology Variation degree of difference Archeology sub field of anthropology that focuses on the study of pre-historic and historic cultures through the excavation of material remains Contemporary current Urban city based Ethnocentrism the practice of viewing the customs of other societies in terms of one s own Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine The concept of culture and the application of cultural Anthropology Examining Culture We began this course by defining anthropology and its various branches We also looked at the chief duties of an anthropologist In this session we will be taking a more detailed look at cultural anthropology and its application We will also be dissecting the phenomena of culture and looking at the special functions of applied anthropology Last but not least as we all know all human occupations have their own set on ethical implications in this lecture we will be analyzing what an anthropologist owes to their profession and to society at large Before we take a more in-depth look into cultural anthropology we must take a moment to first define what exactly is meant by culture In a non-scientific way culture refers to such personal refinements as classical music the fine arts cuisine and philosophy So an example of this theory a person is considered more cultured if he listens to Bach rather than Ricky Martin or to make this example more nationalistic a person is said to be cultured if he listens to Nusrat Fateh Ali rather than Abrar-ul-Haq However anthropologists use this term in a much broader term than the average man Anthropologists don t differentiate between the cultured people and un-cultured people All people have culture according to the anthropological definition We will define culture as every thing people have think and do as members of a society This definition can be most useful since the three verbs correspond to the three major components of culture That is everything people have refers to material possessions everything people think refers to the things they carry around in their heads such as ideas values and attitudes and everything people do refers too behavior patterns Thus all cultures compromise material objects ideas values and attitudes and patterned ways of behaving Just to give you better understanding of culture let us look at some of its main attributes Culture includes everything that people have think and do as members of a society All people have a culture Culture comprises material objects ideas values and attitudes and patterned ways of behaving Culture is a shared phenomenon For a thing behavior or idea to be classified as being cultural its must have a meaning shared by most people in a society Because people share a common culture they are able to predict with-in limits how others will think and behave Cultural influences are reinterpreted and thus do not yield uniform effects Culture is learned One very important factor to remember about culture is that it s learned If we stop to think about it a lot of what we do during our working hours is learned Brushing our teeth eating three times a day attending school tying our show laces these are all actions that we had to learn and yet they are an integral part of our culture While humans do have instincts culture is not transmitted genetically The process of learning culture is called enculturation which is similar in process but differs in terms of content Culture is necessary for our survival and effects how we think and act People from the same culture can predict how others will react due to cultural conditioning Cultural Universals Cultural universals include economic systems systems of marriage and family education systems social control systems and systems of communication Some cultural systems are seemingly invisible such as insurance in the form of family based social safety nets many people in the developing world do not have insurance instead they rely on their families for support While it seems that these people have no one to help them in times of need they in fact do have social safety nets in the form of family support The versatility of cultural systems illustrates how flexible and adaptable humans are Adaptive and Maladaptive Features of Culture Human beings rely more on cultural than biological adaptation to adjust to different types of environments including deserts and very cold areas The clothing habits of Eskimos in the North Pole allows them to live in a place which is naturally very inhospitable Biologically they are the same as us but they have learned to wear more appropriate clothing with lots of fur to keep the cold out These items of clothing have become a cultural trade-mark with them Whenever we think of Eskimos we think of them laden with furs Humans can now even live in outer space or under water for limited periods of time Maladaptive or dysfunctional aspects of culture such as pollution can threaten or damage human environments The consumption of leaded petrol is bad for the environment yet given our reliance on automobiles it is difficult to do without them So what started of as an adaptive aspect allowing us to travel great distances has no become a maladaptive aspect of culture due to the sheer number of cars to be found around the world Integrative Aspects of Culture Cultures are logical and coherent systems shaped by particular contexts Various parts of culture are interconnected Yet culture is more than a sum of its parts Culture and the Individual Although culture influences on the thoughts actions and behavior of individuals it does not determine them exclusively There is a diverse range of individuality to be found within one culture Most cultures are also comprised of subcultures for example artists in most societies have a slightly different way of dressing talking and thinking that mainstream people in their communities Applied versus Pure Anthropology Pure anthropology is concerned refining methods and theories to obtain increasingly accurate and valid anthropological data On the other hand applied anthropologists aims to understand and recommend changes in human behavior to alleviate contemporary problems Problem-Oriented Research Anthropologists can apply anthropological data concepts and strategies to the solution of socio-economic political problems facing different cultures Anthropologists can focus on development research or advocacy to help improve the human condition Specialized Functions for Applied Anthropologists Policy Researcher provides cultural data to policy makers to facilitate informed decisions Evaluator use research skills to determine how well a policy or program has succeeded in its objectives Impact Assessor measuring or assessing the effect of a particular project or policy Needs Assessor use research skills to determine particular needs of a community of people Trainer impart cultural knowledge about certain populations to different groups Ethical Implications Responsibility to the People Studied Anthropologists have an ethical responsibility to the people they are studying they need to present their finding in an unbiased way so that the true picture of their culture way of life can be presented Responsibility to the discipline The chief concern of all anthropologists should be to their discipline They must conduct their research in such a way that their findings play an integral part in consolidating their discipline Responsibility to Sponsors Most research that is done in the field is sponsored by one organization or another or in some cases some individuals are carrying out the burden of sponsorship the anthropologists must ensure that he carries out his duties with the utmost sense of responsibility Responsibility to Own and Host government Most researchers conduct research internationally where they have to respect the laws of their own country and that of the host country Useful Terms Implications results Dissection to take apart Enculturation the process by which human infants learn their culture Versatile different having a varying range Ethical moral Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapters and in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY What is a theory A theory suggests a relationship between different phenomenon Theories allow us to reduce the complexity of reality into an abstract set of principles which serve as models to compare and contrasts different types of realities Theories are based on hypotheses which provide a proposition that needs to be tested through empirical investigations If what is found is consistent with what was expected the theory will be strengthened if not the theory will be either abandoned or some more time will be spent on it to revise it Anthropological theory changes constantly as new data comes forth Anthropological theories attempt to answer such questions as why do people behave the way they do And how do we account for human diversity These questions guided the early nineteenth attempts to theorize and continue to be relevant today We will explore the in chorological order the major theoretical schools of cultural anthropology that have developed since the mid-nineteenth century Some of the earlier theoretical orientations such as diffusionism no longer attract much attention however others such as evolutionism have been modified and re-worked into something new It is easy in hindsight to demonstrate the inherit flaws in some of the early theoretical orientations However we should keep in mind however that contempary anthropological theories that may appear plausible today were built on what we learnt from those older theories Cultural Evolutionism According to this theory all cultures undergo the same development stages in the same order To develop a better understanding of these various development stages it is important to briefly review these various stages and their sub stages Savagery barbarism and civilization were three classifications that classical anthropologists used to divide culture However in Lewis Henry Morgan wrote a book titled Ancient Society in it the three stages of cultural anthropology were further classified into stages which are as follows Lower Savagery From the earliest forms of humanity subsisting on fruits and nuts Middle Savagery Began with the discovery of fishing technology and the use of fire Upper Savagery Began with the invention of bow and arrow Lower Barbarism Began with the art of pottery making Middle Barbarism Began with the domestication of plants and animals in the old world and irrigation cultivation in the new world Upper Barbarism Began with the smelting of iron and the use of iron tools Civilization Began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and writing Evolution is unidirectional and leads to higher levels of culture A deductive approach used to apply a general theory to specific cases Evolutionists were often ethnocentric as they put their own societies on top of the evolutionary ladder Yet it did explain human behavior by rational instead of supernatural causes Diffusionism Like evolutionism diffusionism was deductive and rather theoretical lacking evidence from the field It maintained that all societies change as a result of cultural borrowing from one another The theory highlighted the need to consider interaction between cultures but overemphasized the essentially valid idea of diffusion Historicism Any culture is partially composed of traits diffused from other cultures but this does not explain the existing complexity of different cultures Collection of ethnographic facts must precede development of cultural theories inductive approach Direct fieldwork is considered essential which has provided the approach a solid methodological base emphasizing the need for empirical evidence Each culture is to some degree unique So ethnographers should try to get the view of those being studies not only rely on their own views Historicists emphasized the need for training female anthropologists to gain access to information about female behavior in traditional societies Their anti-theoretical stance is criticized for retarding growth of the anthropological discipline Psychological Anthropology Anthropologists need to explore the relationships between psychological and cultural variables according to this theory Personality is largely seen to be the result of learning culture Universal temperaments associated with males and females do not exist in practice based on research conducted by psychological anthropologists for example it was noticed that there are no universally consistent personality traits like being hard working on the basis of being a male or a female Functionalism Like historicism functionalism focused on understanding culture from the viewpoint of the native It stated that empirical fieldwork is absolutely essential Functionalists stressed that anthropologists should seek to understand how different parts of contemporary cultures work for the well-being of the individual and the society instead of focusing on how these parts evolved Society was thought to be like a biological organism with all of the parts interconnected The theory argued that change in one part of the system brings a change in another part of the system as well Existing institutional structures of any society are thought to perform indispensable functions without which the society could not continue Neo-Evolutionism Neo-Evolution states that culture evolves in direct proportion to their capacity to harness energy The theory states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year increases or as the efficiency of the means of putting energy to work increases Leslie White - Culture Energy x Technology Culture is said to be shaped by environmental and technological conditions Therefore people facing similar environmental challenges are thought to develop similar technological solutions and parallel social and political institutions Cultures evolve when people are able to increase the amount of energy under their control according to this theory Given this emphasis on energy the role of values ideas and beliefs is de-emphasized Useful Terms Theory a general statement about how two or more facts are related to one another Hypotheses an educated hunch as to the relationship among certain variables that guides a research project Evolutionism the th century school of cultural anthropology represented by Morgan and Tyler that attempted to explain variations in cultures by the single deductive theory that they all pass through a series of evolutionary stages Savagery the first amongst the three basic stages savagery barbarism and civilization of cultural evolution Barbarism the middle of the three basic stages of the th century theory developed by Lewis Morgan that all cultures evolve from simple to complex systems Civilization a term used by anthropologists to describe any society with cities Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY French Structuralism French Structuralism focused on identifying the mental structures that underpin social behavior drawing heavily on the science of linguistics Structuralism thought that cognition based on inherent mental codes is responsible for culture Structuralism focused on underlying principles that supposedly generate behavior at the unconscious level rather than observable empirical behavior itself It focused more on repetitive structures rather than considering reasons for cultural change or variation Cultural alterations and variation are explained by reference to external environmental and historical influences Structuralism is criticized for being overly theoretical and not easily verifiable through empirical evidence Ethno-Science Ethno-science describes a culture using categories of the people under study emic approach rather than by imposing categories from the ethnographer s culture etic approach This theory tires to minimize bias and make ethnographic descriptions more accurate by focusing on underlying principles and rules of a given context Due to the time consuming nature of this methodology ethno-science is confined to describing very small segments of given cultures It is difficult to compare native data collected by ethno-scientists since there is no common basis for comparison Despite its impracticality the theory draws attention to the relativity of culture and its principles are useful for other theorists as well Cultural Materialism Cultural materialists rely on supposedly scientific empirical and the etic approach of an anthropologist rather than relying on the viewpoints of the native informant Cultural materialists argue that material conditions and modes of production determine human thoughts and behavior Material constraints that arise from the need to meet basic needs are viewed as the primary reason for cultural variations For cultural materialist the importance of political activity ideology and ideas is considered secondary since it can only retard or accelerate change not be the cause for it Post Modernism Post modernism refutes the generalizing tendency in anthropology and does not believe that anthropologists can provide a grand theory of human behavior Instead it considers each culture as being unique Post modernism is influenced by both cultural relativism and ethno-science Post-modernists want anthropology to stop making cultural generalizations and focus on description and interpretation of different cultures They consider cultural anthropology to be a humanistic not a scientific discipline Post-modernists argue that ethnographies should be written collaboratively so that the voice of the anthropologist co-exists alongside that of local people Interpretive Anthropology Emerging out of post-modernism interpretive anthropology focuses on examining how local people themselves interpret their own values and behaviors Using an emic approach interpretive anthropologists focus on the complexities and living qualities of human nature Useful Terms Structural functionalism a school of cultural anthropology that examines how parts of a culture function for the well-being of society Confined limited Cultural materialism a contemporary orientation in anthropology that holds that cultural systems are most influenced by such material things as natural resources and technology Etic Relying on the views of the researcher or the cultural anthropologists Emic Relying on views of local people Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Introduction to Cultural Anthropology - Lecture METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Fieldwork A distinctive feature of Cultural Anthropology is its reliance on experiential fieldwork as a primary way of conducting research Cultural Anthropologists collect cultural data and test their hypothesis by carrying out fieldwork in different parts of the world The areas where this fieldwork is conducted can include both urban and rural areas in highly industrialized rich countries or poor developing nations of the world Detailed anthropological studies have been undertaken to study the way in which people belonging to different cultures and sub-cultures think and behave Comments on Fieldwork Since the credibility of ethnographic studies rests on their methods of research often termed the methodology so cultural anthropologists have begun focusing on how to conduct fieldwork While every fieldwork situation is unique there are a number of issues in common like the need to prepare for fieldwork or to obtain permission from the country s government where this research is to be conducted Even if a researcher is doing research within his her own country often permission from the concerned level of the local government is required particularly if thee research is considering how government structures institutions like schools or health clinics for example effect the lives and behavior of a particular group of people Stages of Fieldwork Selecting a research problem Formulating a research design Collecting the data Analyzing the data Interpreting the data Selecting a Research Problem Cultural Anthropologists have moved away from general ethnographies to research that is focused specific and problem oriented The problem oriented approach involves formulation of a hypothesis which is then tested in a fieldwork setting Formulating a Research Design The independent variable is capable of effecting change in the dependent variable The dependent variable is the one that we wish to explain whereas the independent variable is the hypothesized explanation If we want to look at the effect of urbanization on family interactions the independent variable will be urbanization Defining Dependent Variables Dependent variables must be defined specifically so they can be measured quantitatively To ascertain family interaction the following issues deserve attention Residence Patterns Visitation Patterns Mutual Assistance Formal Family Gatherings Collecting and Analyzing Data Once the hypothesis is made concrete the data is collected through an appropriate data collection technique Once collected the data is coded to facilitate analysis For example if a questionnaire is being used to get views of people in a given community all those people who say yes to a given question could be identified using a code to obtain a statistical number Then a similar questionnaire in another community could identify people responding positively to the same question In this way a researcher could compare how many people in both communities responded positively to the same question In addition to surveys other research techniques can also be coded even ethnographies can be coded to enable comparison of peoples attitudes and behavior in different communities Interpreting the Data Interpretation is the most difficult step in research which involves explaining the findings to refute or accept the hypothesis A researcher could hypothesize that there is a link between urbanization and increasing poverty and then go into a community to see if increasing poverty is responsible for more people shifting into the city based on these findings the hypothesis could either be rejected or accepted Findings of a particular study can be compared to similar studies in other areas to get more extensive information about a particular problem or how different communities with different cultures deal with similar problems The problem of poverty and how different people react to this problem is a good example of a research problem that can be examined by different researchers and their findings compared to see how different cultures respond when they are faced by poverty Need for Flexibility A technique originally mentioned in the research proposal can prove to be impractical in the field Cultural anthropologists need some options and remain flexible in choosing an appropriate technique given surrounding circumstances Difficulties in Fieldwork Research in remote locations carries risks such as exposure to diseases or different forms of social violence Researchers can encounter psychological disorientation commonly termed culture shock when they have to live and deal with circumstances completely alien to their own surrounds Researchers must also try to find a balance between subjectivity and objectivity if they want to assure the quality of their research and to prevent its criticism on the basis of being biased by the researcher s own viewpoints Many anthropological studies have been criticized for being biased or ethnocentric in their attempt to look at how other people live Useful Terms Ethnography detailed anthropological study of a culture undertaken by a researcher Ethnocentric the view that one s own cultural is superior Data collection of facts Biased prejudiced holding an unfair view Culture shock psychological disorientation brought on due to cultural difference Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter and in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY continued Participant Observation Anthropologists use this technique more extensively and frequently than other social scientists Participant Observation means becoming involved in the culture under study while making systematic observations about what goes on in it Guidelines for Participant Observation Fieldwork Before approaching the field it is advisable to obtain clearance from all appropriate levels of the political administrative hierarchy Local people at the grassroots level know their own culture better than anyone else and their views need to be given due respect Advantages of Participant Observation It allows distinguishing between what people say they do and what they actually do The greater the cultural immersion is the greater is the authenticity of cultural data It allows observation of non-verbal behavior as well Disadvantages of Participant Observation There are problems of recording observations while using this technique The technique has an intrusive effect on subject of study Also a smaller sample size is obtained through this technique than through other techniques and the data obtained is hard to code or categorize making standardized comparisons difficult Interviewing Enables collection of information on what people think or feel attitudinal data as well as what they do behavioral data Ethnographic interviews are often used alongside other data gathering techniques Structured and Unstructured Interviews In structured interviews interviewers ask respondents exactly the same set of questions in the same sequence Unstructured interviews involve a minimum of control with the subject answering open-ended questions in their own words Guidelines for Researchers To minimize distortions in collected data researchers can check the validity of their findings by either asking cross check information given by respondents or repeat the same question at a later time It is important to frame the questions neutrally Instead of asking You don t smoke do you ask Do you smoke Census Taking Collecting basic demographic data at the initial stages of fieldwork is the least intrusive manner to begin investigating the state of a given community Document Analysis Documentary analysis of administrative records newspapers and even popular culture like song lyrics or nursery rhymes is often surprisingly revealing about the circumstances aspirations and values of different people Genealogies Mapping relations of informants particularly in small- scale societies is very revealing since they tend to interact more closely with their families than people in more complex societies which have a greater number of institutions and professionals Photography Cameras and video recorders allow researchers to see without fatigue without being selective and provide a lasting record of cultural events and physical surroundings Some local communities however can object to the use of cameras due to their conservative values or they consider it an intrusion on their privacy Choosing a Technique Choice of technique depends on the problem being studied Choice of a technique also depends on the receptiveness of the community in question to a particular technique For example if a given community does not allow the anthropologist undertaking research to use cameras the researcher will have to respect the wishes of the community in question and document descriptions of relevant events instead of being able to take a photograph by which this information could have been captured more easily Undertaking Cross-Cultural Comparisons For undertaking such comparisons particular with the help of statistics the following issues deserve attention Quality of data being compared must be consistent and based on the same methodology information based on interviews conducted in one culture cannot be compared with information obtained from questionnaires in another culture Units of analysis must be comparable it s not possible to compare different levels of social systems a village cannot be compared to a city for example Contrasting cultural traits out of context from their remaining culture is problematic but useful in identifying similarities across different cultures which is an important objective for cultural anthropology Useful Terms Attitudinal based on how people think or feel about something Receptiveness response to a particular action Participation being a part of something Perspective point of view Cultural traits particular features of a culture Cross-cultural comparison of differences between cultures Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter and in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD What is Economic Anthropology Economic Anthropology involves examining how different cultures and societies produce distribute and consume the things they need to survive All cultures need to be able to manage these processes in accordance with their given circumstances to ensure the survival of their people Differentiating Economics from Economic Anthropology While economists assume that people are preoccupied by the need to maximize profits and this is the basic impulse due to which they produce goods and services Economic anthropologists do not believe profit maximization is equally important for all cultures They point out that there are several other processes besides profit maximization which exist in different cultures of the world by the allocation distribution of resources need to produce goods and services and the distribution of the goods and services takes place For example these economic anthropologists look at how different cultures distribute land which is an important resource needed for production of agricultural goods and have noticed that different cultures have different ways in which this distribution takes place However economic anthropologists realize that like economists they too must answer some basic questions concerning basic economic needs of human beings which all cultures around the world face given that some human needs are universal and must be met no matter what type of culture people belong to Economic Universals Economic anthropologists have to consider the following economic universals which are of vital importance to human beings no matter what their cultural systems are like Regulation of Resources How land water and other natural resources like minerals are controlled and allocated Production How material resources sugarcane are converted into usable commodities sugar Exchange How the commodities once produced are distributed among the people of a society Examining the Issue of Land Rights Free access to land is found in environments where water and pasturage is scarce Land rights are more rigidly controlled among horticulturalists and agriculturalists than among foragers and pastoralists Division of Labor Durkheim the famous sociologist responsible for establishing this branch of study in the early twentieth century had distinguished between two types of societies those based on mechanical solidarity and others based on organic solidarity Societies with a minimum specialization of labor are held together by mechanical solidarity based on commonality of interest In these societies people are more self-reliant therefore they need other people to a lesser degree than people in societies where people focus on production of a very specific good or service and then rely on others to provide them other necessities of life in exchange for their specialized product Highly specialized societies are held together by organic solidarity based on mutual interdependence Such societies emphasize the need for specialization and people depend on other people in order to obtain the different things that they need Gender Roles and Age Specialization Generally many cultures allocate specific responsibilities on the basis of age and gender Ole people and those very young are given lighter tasks in most cases where circumstances permit in cases of extreme poverty child labor can also take place Similarly women are usually allocated tasks which allow them to maintain flexible timings so that they can look after their homes as well There are exceptions to this rule however since many educated women do work as long as men often leaving their children to the care of day centers In many countries around the world the process of urbanization has led men to move away to the cities in order to earn more cash often leaving women behind to undertake agricultural work which was previously done by men Circumstances also compel poor women to take on heavy work burdens like their men folk to ensure the survival of their families Moreover the same type of activity weaving may be associated with the opposite gender in different cultures the division of labor by gender is seen as being arbitrary Is Nepotism Always Bad In many societies people relate to each other based on the principle of particularism family and kinship ties rather than on universalistic terms using standardized exams interviews Nepotism is not necessarily a sign of corruption since consideration of ground realities like kinship ties can often help determine how people will adjust to specific work environments Useful Terms Allocation of resources the distribution of resources Barter the direct exchange of commodities between people that does not involve a standardized currency Division of Labor the set of rules found in all societies dictating how the day to day tasks are assigned to the various members of a society Reciprocity the practice of giving a gift with an expected return Globalization the world wide process dating back to the demise of the Berlin wall which involves a revolution in information technology opening of markets and the privatization of social services Labor specialization a form of having command over one activity Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES Modes of Distribution Economic Anthropologists categorize the distribution of goods and services in three modes reciprocity redistribution and market exchange Based on these three forms of exchange cultures around the world distribute the goods and services produced by them in order to ensure the survival of the various people which belong to that particular culture Reciprocity implies exchange of goods and services of almost equal value between two trading partners Redistribution most common in societies with political bureaucracies is a form of exchange where goods and services are given by a central authority and then reallocated to create new patterns of distribution Market exchange systems involve the use of standardized currencies to buy and sell goods and services Types of Reciprocity The idea of reciprocity can be divided into the following distinct types of practices evident in cultures around the world Generalized reciprocity involves giving gifts without any expectation of immediate return For example the parents look after their children and these children when they grow older look after their aging parents This is an unsaid rule or obligation towards one family which people undertake willingly out of love and concern and without any external compulsion or the idea of getting something back in return for their caring attitudes Balanced reciprocity involves the exchange of goods and services with the expectation that the equivalent value will be returned within a specific period of time For example if a neighbor s son or daughter is getting married the neighbors will take gifts to the wedding and then expect the same courtesy when their own child s wedding The notion of birthday gifts is even more time specific and thus serves as a good example of balanced reciprocity Negative reciprocity involves the exchange of goods and services between equals in which the parties try to gain an advantage in order to maximize their own profit even if it requires hard-bargaining or exploiting the other person Redistribution Whereas reciprocity is the exchange of goods and services between two parties redistribution involves a social centre from which goods are redistributed Often this redistribution takes place through a political or bureaucratic agency e g the revenue collection or tax department which is found in most countries or even the zakat system in Pakistan based on a religious ideology which is meant to redistribute wealth to those who are destitute Market Exchange Market exchange is based on use of standardized currencies or through the barter exchange of goods and services This system of exchange is much less personal than either reciprocity or redistribution People trade in a marketplace to maximize their profits The greater the specialization of labor that exists in a society the more complex is the system of market exchange to be found in that society Globalization Globalization involves the spread of the free-market economies to all parts of the world based on the assumption that more growth will take place when free trade and competition becomes a universal phenomenon Globalization has begun to show visible impacts on the cultures and lives of people around the world There are people who favor globalization thinking it will help remove poverty across much of the world but they are also those who think that globalization will do the exact opposite Useful Terms Organic Solidarity a type of social integration based on mutual inter-dependence Particularism the propensity to be able to deal with people according to one s particular relationship to them rather than according to a universal standard Production a process where by goods are taken from the natural environment and then altered to become consumable goods for society Property Rights western concept of individual ownership Standardized Currency a medium of exchange with well defined and an understood value Universalism the notion of awarding people on the basis of some universally applied set of standards Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE An Anthropological Perspective Language is a unique phenomenon which allows human beings to communicate meaning to others and express our thoughts and feelings to other people Perhaps the most distinctive feature of being human is our capacity to create and use language Many anthropological linguists would agree that without language human culture could not exist beyond a very basic level The Nature of Language The meaning we give to language is arbitrary random It is due to this arbitrary nature of language there is such a diversity of languages Languages of the World Almost percent of people speak fewer than languages of the approximately languages that are currently found in the world Due to this many languages face the threat of extinction with an increasingly small number of people who know the language This evident dying out of rarely spoken languages is an issue of concern to cultural anthropologists since the extinction of a language also means the death of a way of thinking and expressing human thought Of the more widely spoken languages Mandarin Chinese dialect is spoken by almost in people in the world Hindi is also spoken by multitudes of people Yet English is the most popular second language spoken by people all around the world Communication Human versus Nonhuman Humans are not the only species that communicate Animals use calls to mate find food and signal danger Human communication amongst humans is however much more complex than that of animals We can combine words in unique ways to express our innermost feelings or even very complicated ideas which can be understood by others who can speak the same language Open and Closed Communication Systems Animal sounds are mutually exclusive Closed Communication systems they cannot be combined to express new meanings A warning sound of an animal is always the same and this sound is used to convey the same message always it cannot be combined with other sounds to convey different types of meaning Only humans can put different meanings together through using of an Open Communication system which is the language they speak This categorization of Open and Closed communication systems has been questioned by anthropological linguists based on research conducted using sign language A chimpanzee for example can in fact combine two words to create a third word Researchers have trained a chimpanzee to learn the sign language for water and for bird but not shown it how to say duck using sign language This chimpanzee has however been able to create the two known words water and bird to refer to a duck indicating that other species could also use open communication systems like humans However no linguist has yet made the claim that any animal species has evolved language to a degree which can express the complexities of meaning that human beings can Displacement Humans can speak of purely hypothetical and abstract things of things which happened in the past or may happen in the future Whereas animals only communicate in the present about things concerning their immediate surroundings animals cannot express abstract thoughts Learning to Communicate Imitating adult speech is partially responsible for acquisition of language Linguists like Noam Chomsky at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology think that children are born with a universal grammatical blueprint which helps them pick up the rules of the language being spoken around them so quickly and that this is a biological gift that only the human species seems to possess since no other species has such complex communication abilities Structure of Language All languages have logical structures or rules which are followed by all those who can speak read and write that particular language Phonology provides the sound structure to a language so it can be commonly understood when spoken Morphemes the smallest units of speech that convey meaning art-ist-s by standing alone or being bound to other words Grammar provides the unique rules of a language which help give a logical structure to a language Grammar also provides rules by which words are arranged into sentences syntax Consider the words Adam apples likes eating which make no sense since the verb eating and the adjective likes are not in their grammatically correct position Correcting the mistake will make the sentence clear Adam likes eating apples The underlying structure of sentences which enables us to correct such a mistake and speak in a clear manner is due to the grammatical rules of syntax The fact that we can even say this sentence is due to phonology and morphemes help us create a sentence by providing us with different meanings in smaller words eat-ing like-s Useful Terms Displacement the ability that humans have to talk about things remote in time and space Free Morphemes morphemes that appear in a language without being attached to other morphemes Grammar the systematic way in which sounds are combined in any given language to send and receive meaning-full utterances Phonology the study of language s sound system Changes in Language Language evolves over time Linguists can undertake a synchronic analysis to understand language structures and its underlying rules at a given point in time Undertaking a diachronic analysis however means looking at how a given language changes over time Language Families Language families include languages derived from a proto-language Linguists began clustering languages upon finding similarities between Sanskrit and classical Latin and Greek in the s From the perspective of language families Germanic is mother tongue of English French and Spanish are its sister languages They all belong to the Indo-European language family All languages have internal dialects as well as sharing features with other languages as well particularly with those belonging to the same language family as them Levels of Complexity Linguists have proven that languages of less technological societies are as capable of communicating abstract ideas as advanced societies For example the Navaho do not have singular and plural nouns like English does but their verbs contain much more information than English Instead of merely saying going the Navaho say how they are going if they are going on a horse they must further indicate how fast the horse is going which is a lot more information than a phrase in English which just mentions I am going Cultural Emphasis The vocabulary of languages emphasizes significant words in a given culture This is known as a cultural emphasis Technologically related words show emphasis on technology in highly industrialized countries There are numerous new words to describe computer technology in various languages which did not even exist a few decades ago Language and Culture Some ethno-linguists suggest that language is more than a symbolic inventory of experiences from our physical world experiences According to them language even shapes our thoughts and provides a standardized way to react to experiences The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis According to this hypothesis different cultures see the world differently due to their different languages Language influences and channels our perceptions and thus shapes our resulting behavior as well The hypothesis has conducted several tests in the attempt to validate its claim Linking Language to Culture It is difficult to establish causation to prove either that language determines culture or that culture influences language Language does mirror values of a culture consider for example the emphasis on self in individualistic societies On the other hand in more traditional societies like Japan the use of collective words like we is much more evident Socio-Linguistics Socio-linguistics examines links between languages and social structures While earlier cultural linguists focused on language structures there is now greater focus on the situational use of language i e how the same language is used to speak in different manners depending on the context of the conversation Diglossia Often two varieties of the same language are spoken in different social situations High forms are associated with literacy and education and the elite whereas the lower forms for example Pidgin are considered to be less sophisticated Language and Nationalism Language has important implications for ethnic identities To forge national unity political leaders have often suppressed use of local languages in favor of standardized national languages to provide a sense of unity to the nation and to develop a common means of communication Useful Terms Evolve Develop Synchronic Analysis the analysis of cultural data at a single point in time rather than through time Diachronic Analysis the analysis of socio-cultural data through time rather than at a single point in time Derived taken from Abstract Not clear or vague Emphasis To lay importance on Perceptions Viewpoints Suppressed concealed or covered up Dialect form of speech peculiar to particular region Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURES Strategies for Obtaining Food Food obtaining strategies vary from culture to culture Food obtaining strategies are developed in response to particular environments There are five major food obtaining strategies found in different cultures of the world These five forms of obtaining food are not mutually exclusive and within each category there are evident variations due to technological and environmental differences Therefore often one form of obtaining food predominates within a given culture While food obtaining strategies vary widely around the world none is necessarily superior then another Major Food Obtaining Strategies Food Collection collecting wild vegetation hunting and fishing Horticulture cultivation using simple tools and small and shifting plots of land Pastoralism keeping livestock and using its produce for food Agriculture cultivation using animals irrigation and mechanical implements Industrialization producing food using complex machinery Most developed countries and an increasing amount of developing countries rely on industrialized processes to obtain food Food Environment and Technology Some environments enable a number of modes of food acquisition while others permit limited number of adaptations Technology provides the advantage of adaptation to a given environment It can be said that specific food obtaining modes are influenced by the interaction of a people s technological and environmental conditions The extent to which any society can procure food depends on sophistication of tools used and the abundance of plant and animal life in a given area Productivity of agriculturalists not only depends on technology but also availability of natural resources like water and fertile soil Anthropologists agree that while the environment does not set limits on food obtaining patterns it does place a limit on the adaptations possible and on the ultimate productivity of an area People with simple technologies also cope well with their environments and are intelligent given their circumstances and surroundings The environmental capacity of a given area is referred to as carrying capacity The natural consequence of exceeding carrying capacity is to harm the environment Optimal Foraging Many foraging societies spend extra time and effort to obtain a particular food Ethnographic studies of the Ache in Paraguay for example have revealed that this is not irrational behavior but due to caloric returns of these food sources despite the energy expended in killing collecting and preparing it This reveals that optimal foraging is a calculated strategy not a irrational whim Useful Terms Foraging collecting or gathering Optimal best or most feasible Expended spent Environmental capacity carrying capacity of the environment i e the amount of productive pressure the air water and soil can take without being damaged Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Food Collection Food collection involves systematic exploration of natural plants and animals available in given natural environments People have been foragers for an overwhelming majority of time and have only developed other options to secure food in the last years or so Food Collectors Most societies prefer to produce food but half a million people in different cultures live by foraging even today There are considerable variations in the life patterns of current foragers but it is possible to make some generalizations about them Contemporary Food Collectors Foragers Food collecting societies have low population density They are usually nomadic or semi-nomadic rather than sedentary since their prey often migrates The basic social unit amongst food collectors is a family or a band a loose federation of families Contemporary food collectors occupy remote and marginal habitats due to pressure from food processing people with their dominating technology and thirst for more land While food collectors hunt as well as collect wild plants vegetation provides almost of their food intake Food collecting people live in a wide variety of environments including deserts tropical forests mountains and the polar regions of the Artic and Antarctic circles Unlike food producers food collectors possess inbuilt mechanisms low population and little use of technology which prevents it from becoming too efficient and completely destroying their own source of food Do Foragers Live Well Despite inhabiting the most unproductive parts of Earth foragers are well off and dubbed the original affluent society by anthropologists They enjoy leisure time have enough food and use remarkable intelligence and ingenuity in securing their food Most contemporary foraging societies remain small scale unspecialized egalitarian and non-centralized The Khung in the Kalahari Desert in Namibia and the Inuit in the Artic region provide good examples of hunting and gathering peoples today Food Production About years ago humans made a transition from collecting to producing food by cultivating crops and keeping herds of animals The earliest cultivation occurred in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East Archeologists think this transition was due to demographic and environmental pressures Early farmers paid a high price for this new food strategy They did not switch convinced by the superiority of agriculture which was more monotonous less secure and required more labor and time Evidence reveals early cultivators also experienced a decline in nutritional and health standards because they had to shift from collecting to growing food Changes Resulting From Neolithic Revolution Food production resulted in the first population explosion Fertility rates also increased since children could make an economic contribution People became sedentary and civilizations began to develop As farming became more efficient people had more free time and began making farm implements and pottery leading to the division of labor and specialization The egalitarianism of foraging societies was replaced by social inequalities and the thirst for private ownership Useful Terms Population number of people in a given area Sedentary settlement or settled down in one place Strategy a thought out method to obtain some objective or goal Monotonous boring Nutritional value amount of energy Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Horticulture Horticulture is the simplest form of farming using basic tools no fertilizer or irrigation and relying on human power Horticulturists use shifting cultivation techniques also referred to as slash and burn cultivation Horticultural Crops Crops growth by horticulturists can be divided into three categories tree crops seed crops and root crops Common tree crops include bananas figs dates and coconuts Major seed crops are high in protein Wheat barley rice millet oats and sorghum are all seed crops Major root crops are high in starch and carbohydrates Yams sweet potatoes potatoes are all root crops The Lacondon Maya of Chiapas Mexico are more productive than mono-crop agriculturalists They achieve three levels of production from the same land and do so by maintaining by imitating the dispersal patterns found within ecological systems of tropical rainforest rather than displacing them Slash and Burn Technique In unused areas of vast land slash and burn can be a reasonably efficient form of production Ash fertilized soil resulting from slashing and burning wild vegetation must lie fallow to restore fertility Under drought conditions of Al Nino during the s horticulturists were severely criticized for destroying large tract of grasslands and forests in Madagascar Brazil and Indonesia since the fires they lit for clearing land often raged out of control Pastoralism Keeping domesticated livestock as a source of food is widely practiced in areas where cultivation is not possible Pastoralism involves a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle within small family based communities Pastoralists also maintain regular contact with cultivators to help supplement their diets Agriculture More recent than horticulture agriculture uses technologies like irrigation fertilizers and mechanical equipment to produce high yield and large populations Agriculture is associated with permanent settlements and high levels of labor specialization Intensive agriculture leads to even further specialization and use of technological inputs It also leads to social stratification political hierarchies and administrative structures Industrialization Since several centuries people have used industrialized food getting strategies There is increasing amounts of mechanical power available for the purpose of obtaining storing and processing food Industrialization also uses a mobile labor force and a complex system of markets which has led to the increasing commercialization of food Therefore food is grown not only for consumption but also for exporting to other countries of the world Biotechnology provides a current example of industrialized food getting as does laser leveling or use of GPS transmitters on grain harvesters All these technological innovations have been incorporated into the food production process and helped to increase food output Yet there are environmental costs resulting from exceeding the carrying capacity of land and from overuse of technological innovations such as pesticides and fertilizers The use of biotechnology in food production is also a much debated topic Useful Terms Horticulture A form of small-scale crop cultivation characterized by the use of simple technology and the absence of irrigation Carbohydrates energy source found in particular types of food group Tropical humid Drought lack of rainfall Criticize disapprove of Supplement add on Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine RELEVANCE OF KINSHIP AND DESCENT Kinship Defined Kinship is the single most important social structure in all societies Kinship is based on both consanguineal blood and affinal marriage relations or even fictive ties adoption godparents Functions of Kinship Vertical Function Kinship systems provide social continuity by binding together a number of generations Horizontal Function Kinships provide social solidarity and continuity within the same generation as well Cultural Rules Regarding Kinship Kinship systems group relatives into certain categories and call them by the same name and behave with them in a similar manner Yet how particular cultures categorize relatives varies according to different principles of classification Kinship Criteria Different societies use different rules in formulating kinship ties Some of these are Generation - uncles are in one generation cousins in another Gender - cousins do not occupy gender determined kin categories Lineality kin of a single line i e son father grandfather Consanguineality kin through a linking relative wife s brother Relative Age one kinship term for father s older brother another for his younger brother e g taya and chacha Gender of Connecting Relative using different kinship terms for the father s brother s daughter his sister s daughter Social Conditions different kinship terms for a married or an unmarried bother Side of the Family different kinship terms for father s and mother s sides of the family e g phupho and khala Rules of Descent Rules of descent enable the affiliation of people with different sets of kin for example Patrilineal descent affiliates a person with the kin of the father Matrilineal descent affiliates a person with the kin of the mother Ambilineal descent permits an individual to affiliate with either parent s kin group Consanguineal versus Affinal Kin Some societies make a distinction in kinship categories based on whether people are related by blood consanguineal kin or through marriage affinal kin For example take the difference between a sister and a sister-in-law or a brother and a brother-in-law Comparing Descent Groups Patrilineal descent groups are most common around the world The relations between man and wife tend to be more fragile in matrilineal societies Useful Terms Unilineal descent tracing descent through a single line such as matrilineal or patrilineal as compared to both sides bilateral decent Bilateral able to accommodate two-sides simultaneously Matrineally mother s side of the family Patrineally father s side of the family Prevalent common amongst many Kinship relationship Merging integration Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Tracing Descent In societies that trace their descent unilineally people recognize that they belong to a particular unilineal descent group or series of groups Sixty percent of cultures in the world are unilineal Unilineal groups are adaptive and clear-cut social units based on birthright which in turn influence inheritance marriage and prestige issues Kinship Organization Kinship is organized on the basis of different groups of varying sizes Lineages are based on a set of kin who can trace their ancestry back through known links Clans are unilineal groups which claim descent but they are unable to trace all their genealogical links Phratries are groups of related clan Moieties are two halves of a society related by descent Bilateral Descent A person is related equally to both sides of the family on the basis of bilateral descent This form of descent is prevalent in foraging and industrialized societies Bilateral systems are symmetrical and result in the formation of kindred which are loose kinship networks rather than being permanent corporate functioning groups Double Descent A double unilineal descent system is one where descendents are traced matrineally and patrineally As a result both sides of the family have a useful social function such as enabling inheritance Under this system it is possible for moveable property such as livestock or agricultural produce to be inherited from the mother s side whereas non-moveable property land may be inherited from the father s side This system is found in only of world cultures for e g the Yako in Nigeria Primary Kinship Systems There are six basic types of kinship systems used to define how cultures distinguish between different categories of relatives Eskimo are found in one-tenth of the world societies this system involves bilateral descent focusing on nuclear relations and lumping external relatives cousins uncles and aunts Hawaiian are found in a third of world societies this system uses the same term for all relatives of the same gender and generation so the term mother is used not only for the mother but also for her sisters and the father s sisters Cousins are termed brothers and sisters This is an ambivalent system which submerges the nuclear family into a larger kinship group Iroquois are a less prevalent system which emphasizes the importance of unilineal descent groups by distinguishing between members of one s own lineage and those belonging to other lineages Sudanese are the system is named after the country where the system was first identified It is the most pluralistic system since it makes the most terminological distinctions Omaha emphasizes patrilineal descent the father and his brothers are referred to by the same term and the paternal cousins are called siblings but cross cousins are referred to by separate terms On the mother s side there is a merging of generations all her male relatives are called mother s brother Crow is the exact opposite of the Omaha system as it emphasizes maternal relations which are all important for determining the descent group of children Kinship Diagrams Cultural Anthropologists often use kinship diagrams to help explain family structures which use simple symbols for males and females and to indicate what their relationships are to each other The diagram below depicts a married couple and their two children a son and a daughter Useful Terms Descent established linage Ambivalent unclear Influence power Social function the particular purpose served for society Prestige Social honor or respect within a society Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine THE ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE Family and Marriage The family is a social unit in which its members cooperate economically manage reproduction and child rearing and most often live together Families can be based on lineage and marital ties Marriage the process by which families are formed is a socially approved union between male and female adults Marriage is based on the assumption that it is a permanent contract Yet there is a discrepancy between real and expected behavior within marriages given the high rates of divorce in many countries of the modern world Functions of Families Families reduce competition for spouses They also regulate the division of labor on the basis of gender Families also meet the material educational and emotional needs of children Marriage Restrictions Cultures restrict the choice of marriage patterns by exogamy which means marrying outside a given group Endogamy on the other hand implies marrying within a given group Conservative Hindus are mostly endogamous as are Rwandans in Central African It is important to note that endogamous groupings can be based on lineage or even ethnic or economic similarities Moreover it is possible to simultaneously have an endogamous marriage within an ethic group that is also exogamous outside one s lineage Types of Marriage Monogamy a marriage arrangement that implies having one spouse at one time Polygamy a marriage arrangement that implies a man marrying more than one woman at one time Polyandry a marriage arrangement that implies a woman marrying more than one husband at one time Economic Aspect of Marriage Marriages involve transfer of some type of economic consideration in exchange for rights of union legal rights over children and rights to each other s property There are many cultures in the world which consider marriage as more than a union of man and wife but instead an alliance between two families Types of Marriage Transactions Bride-wealth transfer of wealth from a groom s family to that of the bride s approximately Bride service labor in exchange for a wife common in small scale societies lacking material wealth approximately Dowry transfer of wealth from a bride s family to that of the groom s This practice was popular in medieval Europe and may still prevail in several parts of Northern India approximately Woman Exchange two men exchanging sister s as wives This practice is limited to a small number of societies approximately in Africa and the Pacific region Reciprocal Exchange a roughly equal exchange of gifts between bride and groom families Found amongst traditional Native Americans and islands in the Pacific region approximately Note These above statistics are not very recent and should not be taken literally but rather as an indication of the popularity of the above types of transactions Useful Terms Discrepancy difference Reciprocal equal Groom husband Reproduction process of giving birth to children Transaction exchange Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Residence Patterns Residence patterns are influenced by kinship systems For e g patrilocal residence is common in patrilineal cultures Residence patterns can be disrupted due to events such as droughts famines wars or even due to economic hardship The most common types of residence patterns evidenced around the world are Patrilocal the couple can live with or near the relatives of the husband s father most prevalent Matrilocal the couple can live with or near the relatives of the wife s father A nculocal the couple can live with or near the husband s mother s brother Ambilocal or bilocal the couple can live with or near the relatives of either the wife or the husband Neolocal Where economic circumstances permit the couple can also establish a completely new residence of their own Residence patterns are not static The Great Depression in America during the s for example compelled neolocal residents to shift back to living with one of their parents again due to economic reasons Similar circumstances keep recurring in different societies of the world and result in changing residence patterns In many traditional societies joint-family systems are also very common The dynamics of a joint-family system differ from widely from living independently implying a shared responsibility for household responsibilities often under the charge of the oldest member of the household Family Structures Cultural Anthropologists distinguish between two types of family structures the nuclear family and the extended family Nuclear families are based on marital ties whereas the extended family is a much larger social unit based on blood ties among three or more generations Nuclear Family A two generation family formed around the marital union While a part of bigger family structures nuclear families remain autonomous and independent Nuclear families are often found in societies with greatest amount of geographic mobility Nuclear family patterns were encouraged by industrialization and technology but also have remained evident in foraging societies Where resources are scare it makes sense for people to remain in nuclear families whereby retaining a certain level of mobility independence Nuclear families are therefore called the basic food collecting unit in addition to being the most dominant mode of family life in many modern-day families around the world Extended Families Blood ties are more important than ties of marriage which form the basis of extended families Extended families can be matrilineal or patrilineal The Anthropological Atlas of noted out of societies as having some form of extended family organization These numbers have no doubt increased over the past few decades given the increasing world population Modern-Day Families Modernization and urbanization have seen progressive movement towards nuclear family structures In developing countries this correlation is not necessary The lack of employment security makes extended families serve as social safety nets Migrant families also hold onto traditional family structures even after having gone to live abroad In western societies even nuclear families are not so common given high divorce and separation rates Useful Terms Prevalent commonly found in different places Migrant refugee Correlation association between two entities Scarce in short supply Evident obvious Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine GENDER AND CULTURE Meaning of Gender Gender refers to the way members of the two sexes are perceived evaluated and expected to behave It is not possible to determine the extent to which culture or biology determines differences in behaviors or attitudes between males or females Although biology sets broad limits on gender definitions there is a wide range of ideas about what it means to be feminine or masculine Margaret Mead demonstrated this gender based variation in her classical study of sex and temperament in New Guinea Gender Roles In some cultures gender roles are rigidly defined in other cultures they can overlap In general terms however there is considerable uniformity in gender roles found throughout the world Men engage in warfare clear land hunt and trap animals build houses fish and work with hard substances Women on the other hand tend crops prepare food collect firewood clean house launder clothes and carry water tasks compatible with child rearing Yet there are many exceptions to the rule For example in parts of Eastern Africa and in other parts of the developing world women carry enormous amounts of firewood on their backs For the foraging Agta of the Philippines hunting is not an exclusively male activity Status of Women The status of women is multidimensional involving such aspects as the division of labor the value placed on women s contributions economic autonomy social and political power legal rights levels of deference and the extent to which women control the everyday events of their lives The status of women varies around the world but it is unfortunate that in most cases it continues to remain below that of men Gender Stratification Gender stratification contrasts the status assigned by different cultures on the basis of gender It is important to release that status is itself a multidimensional notion involving issues of economic social and political empowerment Stratification on the basis of gender is a common phenomenon The relationships between men and women vary in both degree and in extent across different cultures of the world Many cultures in Asia for example are very stratified along gender lines On the other hand foraging societies like the Mbuti Pygmies of Central Africa possess a very egalitarian gender approach all their elders are called tata Gender stratification need not be static However in most critical areas women tend to be subordinate to men in most societies of the world It is difficult to measure the comparative status of men and women in different societies since there are various components of stratification which can vary independently of each other Useful Terms Status social ranking Acquisition gaining Interaction communication Abundance profusion or great quantity Multidimensional many sided Stratification hierarchical division Irrational without logic Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Gender Ideology Gender ideology is used in most societies to justify the universal male dominance Deeply rooted values about the superiority of men the ritual impurity of women and the preeminence of men s work are used to justify subjugation of women However it has been demonstrated in recent years that women do not perceive themselves in the same ways that they are portrayed in largely male gender ideologies Negative Impact of Biased Gender Ideologies In some societies gender ideologies become so extreme that females suffer serious negative consequences such as female infanticide female nutritional deprivation honor killings and domestic violence These atrocities are due to the negative impact of gender ideologies as well as due to the disempowerment of females which is another simultaneous consequence of these ideologies Women Employment Although the words breadwinner and housewife accurately described the middle-class western household around the beginning of the twentieth century the separate gender roles implied by these two terms have become more myth than reality Over the past four decades the number of women in working outside the home has increased dramatically This is true for not only industrialized but also developing countries due to the ongoing phenomenon of globalization which has led more and more women into the workforce Occupational Segregation The economy of most countries is characterized by a high rate of occupational segregation along gender lines Not only are occupations gender segregated but women tend to earn considerably less than men Feminization of Poverty There has been a trend in recent decades toward the feminization of poverty Being disempowered women fall victims to poverty much more easily then men They also have less access to resources with which to fight against poverty Women often are responsible for looking after their children and their poverty results in declining health standards of both women and their children Useful Terms Segregation separation Resources means of production or more generally the financial means required to do something Ideology an established way of thinking Decade a period of ten years Disempowered without any say or without any authority or power Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine STRATIFICATION AND CULTURE Stratification and its Manifestations Individuals in different cultures and societies have varying amounts of access to wealth power and prestige This evident inequality leads to stratification whereby groups or categories of people are ranked hierarchically relative to one another Social Ranking Social ranking is an important feature found to one degree or another in all societies The degree to which societies rank individuals however varies and results in varying amounts of inequality to be found in the world Dimensions of Inequality According to Max Weber stratification takes place on the basis of three reasons People are distinguished from each other on the basis of wealth or economic resources they posses Secondly stratification takes place on the basis of differing levels of power Power is the ability to achieve one s goals and objectives even against the will of others The amount of power often correlates to amount of wealth individuals possess Types of Societies Stratified societies which are associated with the rise of civilization range from open class societies which permit high social mobility to more rigid caste societies which allow for little or no social mobility Class societies are associated with achieved status the positions that the individual can choose or at least have some control over Caste societies on the other hand are based on ascribed statuses into which one is born and cannot change The United States is often cited as a prime example of a class society with maximum mobility Although its national credo includes a belief in the possibility of going from rags to riches most people in the United States remain in the class into which they are born because social environment has an appreciable effect on a person s life chances The mobility in less developed countries is even more restricted Hindu India is often cited as the most extreme form of caste society found in the world Social boundaries among castes are strictly maintained by caste endogamy and strongly held notions of ritual purity and pollution Useful Terms Inequality unevenness Purity cleanliness Pollution environmental degradation or physical corruption deterioration Social mobility ability to change one s status Ritual a social routine Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Prominent Theories of Stratification Theories of stratification try to explain the existing inequality of wealth in and between different cultures The Functional Theory and the Conflict Theory provide two conflicting interpretations of social stratification evident around the world today The Functionalists Functionalists adopt a conservative position and maintain that social inequality exists because it is necessary for the functioning of society Functionalists emphasize the integrative nature of stratification which results in stability and social order They point out that class systems contribute to the overall well-being of a society and encourage constructive endeavor Functionalists argue that differential awards are necessary if societies are to recruit the best trained and most highly skilled people for highly valued positions They maintain that highly skilled people need to be given greater rewards to act as an inventive for them to acquire the required skills For example a brain surgeon needs to spend enormous amounts of time and energy to develop his skills and help society and society must in turn reward him more than it does other people who do not have to make a similar investment in obtaining a skill Functionalists cannot account for non-functional success of pop icons for example Famous personalities are often given enormous amounts of money to make public appearances due to their popularity rather than their exceptional amount of skill Functionalists ignore the barriers to participation of certain segments of society Conflict Theorists Conflict theorists assume that the natural tendency of all societies is toward change and conflict Conflict theorists believe that stratification exists because the upper classes strive to maintain their superior position at the expense of the lower classes Conflict theorists do not view stratification systems as enviable or desirable Lack of social mobility leads to exploitation crime revitalization reform and even to revolution Conflict theory is influenced by the wirings of Karl Marx Functionalists versus Conflict Theorists Integrative aspects of stratification are beneficial for society but the exploitation of under-classes does cause tensions and conflict Neither theory can alone explain the existing use and dysfunctional aspects of stratification Useful Terms Revitalization recuperation or revival Dysfunctional no longer able to function or have utility in the given circumstances Exploitation taking advantage of someone else sue to their inability to safeguard their own interests Differential Awards different remunerations or rewards Social Inequality a state of being where certain segments of society are more well off than others Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine CULTURE AND CHANGE Cultural Change Although the rate of change varies from culture to culture no cultures remain unchanged Small-scale cultures that are less reliant on technology are seen to change more slowly than industrialized cultures and societies However nothing is as constant as change There is no culture or society which can safeguard itself from the processes of change How Cultures Change The two principal ways that cultures change are internally through the processes of invention and innovation and externally through the process of diffusion It is generally recognized that the majority of cultural features things ideas and behavior patterns found in any society got there by diffusion rather than invention Inventions Inventions can be either deliberate or unintentional Although intentional inventors usually receive the most recognition and praise over the long run unintentional inventors have probably had the greatest impact on cultural change Consider for example the common phrase necessity is the mother of all invention which implies that often circumstances are a more compelling factor inducing innovations in society than the declared intention to make something new Because they are not bound by conventional standards many inventors and innovators tend to be marginal people living on the fringes of society Anthropologists examine the backgrounds and psychological factors that influence innovative personalities Some of them maintain that inventors are often amongst the well off segments of society yet there are other anthropologists who present other arguments concerning innovators Diffusion The following generalizations can be made about the process of diffusion Cultural diffusion is selective in nature selectivity not all things diffuse from one culture to another at the same rate Diffusion is a two-way process reciprocity both cultures change as a result of diffusion Cultural elements are likely to involve changes in form or function modification a diffused cultural item will not remain exactly the same as it is to be found in its original culture Consider for example the case of Chinese food or pizza which are modified according to the taste of different countries The idea of chicken tikka topping is an example of cultural modification Cultural items involving material aspects are more likely candidates for diffusion than those involving non-material aspects Diffusion is affected by a number of important variables duration and intensity of contact degree of cultural integration and similarities between donor and recipient cultures Useful Terms Variables values which are subject to change Cultural items these include both material and non-material items ranging from clothing to ideas Donor a country or even an individual entity which is at the giving end of a relationship Recipient a country or even an individual entity which is at the receiving taking end of a relationship Conventional standard or acceptable Intentional being motivated by an intention Intentional innovators for example clearly state that they are trying to deal with a particular problem and will attempt to identify a solution for it Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Acculturation Acculturation is a specialized form of cultural diffusion that is a result of sustained contact between two cultures one of which is subordinate to another Whereas diffusion involves a single or complex of traits acculturation involves widespread cultural reorganization over a shorter period of time There are events in history like colonization which have caused acculturation to occur in many parts of the world Some anthropologists have described situations of acculturation in which the non-dominant culture has voluntarily chosen the changes Other anthropologists claim that acculturation always involves some measure of coercion and force Cultural Interrelations Because the parts of a culture are interrelated a change in one part of a culture is likely to bring about changes in other parts of the given culture This is the reason why people are often reluctant to accept change since its consequences cannot be exactly predicted nor controlled This insight of cultural anthropology should be kept in mind by applied anthropologists who are involved in planned programs of cultural change Reaction to Change In every culture there are two sets of opposing forces those interested in preserving the status quo and others desiring change The desire for prestige economic gain and more efficient ways of solving a problem are reasons why people embrace change but the threat of loss of these can lead other people to oppose change as well Barriers to Cultural Change Some societies can maintain their cultural boundaries through the exclusive use of language food and clothing Some societies can resist change in their culture because the proposed change is not compatible with their existing value systems Barriers to Cultural Change Societies resist change because it disrupts existing social and economic relationships The functional interrelatedness of cultures serves as a conservative force discouraging change Cultural boundaries include relative values customs language and eating tastes Change Agents Change agents including development workers for example facilitate change in modern times Change agents sometimes fail to understand why some people are resistant to change and should realize cultural relativity and barriers to change Useful Terms Facilitate to make easier or to promote Functional useful or practical aspects Cultural relativity the realization that cultural traits fit in logically within their own cultural environments and that since circumstances around the world differ cultures are also different Status Quo The existing conditions or circumstances There are always those who are interested in maintaining the status quo since they are doing well due to it and others who oppose the status quo since it tends to exploit them or puts them in a disadvantaged position Coercion An act of force rather than that based on the need or desire of a particular individual or society Interrelations interconnections Subordinate in an inferior or subordinated position Dominant in a position of power over others Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine The Complex Process of Change Accepting change in one part of a culture is likely to bring about changes to other parts of a culture To understand socio-cultural aspects of urbanization it is important to view the rural area the urban areas and the people who move between them as parts of a complex system of change Until some decades ago anthropologists made differentiations between the mechanical solidarity of rural areas and the organic solidarity of cities Recent research notes that there is not a simple flow of migrants from rural areas to urban areas but rather a circulation of people between these areas Urbanization or the process of rural development therefore needs to take into account the fact that there is a constant crisscrossing of people ideas and resources from urban to rural areas Rural migrants rely on kinsmen for land purchase dispute resolution or general household management while they go to the cities in search for cash based employment Conversely rural kinsmen may in turn obtain economic support from a urban wage earner or seek his support in finding work or a place to stay in the city for other kinsmen Planned Change Planned programs of change have been introduced into developing countries for decades under the assumption that they benefit the local people Yet a number of studies have shown that although some segments of the local population may benefit many more do not Globalization Globalization is a broad-based term which is used to describe the intensification of the flow of money goods and information across the world which is seen to be taking place since the s Globalization has made the study of culture change more complex due to its varied effects on various cultural processes including that of change In some cases globalization is responsible for an accelerated pace of change in world cultures In other situations the forces of globalization may stimulate traditional cultures to redefine themselves Developing countries in the attempt to better deal with the forces of globalization such as trade liberalization have begun to revamp their own economic systems in order to make them more competitive internationally This economic revamping has tremendous cultural impacts as well Globalization has resulted in diffusion of technology but also compounded existing inequalities There are human and environmental costs associated with globalization For example increased productivity has led to pollution and there are many theorists who argue that globalization has also increased the gap between the rich and the poor with those with wealth doing even better and those without it experiencing even worse poverty than before Useful Terms Globalization intensification of the flow of money goods and information across the world Urbanization the process of people moving from rural areas into the cities This phenomenon is taking place in both developed and developing countries and cultural anthropologists are very interested in studying why and how urbanization takes place and the cultural changes it brings Revamping reforming or changing Competitive the process of trying to do better than those engaging in the same activity Environmental Costs the impact of a particular activity on land water or air and on various other species which inhabit the Earth alongside human beings Impacts results or effects Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Need for Political Organization All societies have political systems that function to manage public affairs maintain social order and resolve conflict Yet the forms of these political systems are diverse sometimes embedded in other social structures Studying Political Organization Political organization involves issues like allocation of political roles levels of political integration concentrations of power and authority mechanisms of social control and resolving conflicts Anthropologists recognize four types of political organization based on levels of political integration concentration specialization Political organization is found within bands tribes chiefdoms and states Nowadays non-state forms of political organization have state systems superimposed on them Types of Political Systems Societies based on bands have the least amount of political integration and role specialization Kung in Kalahari Bands Bands are most often found in foraging societies and are associated with low population densities distribution systems based on reciprocity and egalitarian social relations Tribal Organizations Tribal organizations are most commonly found among horticulturists and pastoralists Neur in Sudan With larger and more sedentary populations than are found in band societies tribal organizations do also lack centralized political leadership and are egalitarian Tribally based societies have certain pan-tribal mechanisms that integrate clan members to face external threats Clan elders do not hold formal political offices but usually manage affairs of their clans settling disputes representing clan in negotiation with other clans etc Chiefdoms Chiefdoms involve a more formal and permanent political structure than is found in tribal societies Political authority in chiefdoms rests with individuals who acts alone or with advice of a council Most chiefdom tends to have quite distinct social ranks rely on feasting and tribute as a major way of distributing goods In the late nineteenth and twentieth century many societies had chiefdoms imposed on them by colonial powers for administrative convenience for e g British impositions in Nigeria Kenya and Australia The pre-colonial Hawaiian political system of the th century was a typical chiefdom Useful Terms Public Affairs issues concerning the public at large instead of specific individuals only Social Order the state of being where society functions as per the expectations of people and can provide them with a sense of security Sedentary settled Colonial powers at different phases of history different nations have been powerful enough to colonize other nations In the th century Britain was a colonial power which was able to colonize many other countries located on the African and the Asian continents Pre-colonial the period in history when a particular nation had not yet been colonized Allocation distribution Integration tied together or linked in a particular manner Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrin State Systems State systems have the greatest amount of political integration specialized political roles and maintain authority on the basis of an ideology States are associated with intensive agriculture market economies urbanization and complex forms of social stratification States began to be formed years ago with the Greek city-states and the Roman Empire providing impressive examples of state based political organization States have a monopoly on the use of force and can make and enforce laws collect taxes and recruit labor for military service and public works which differentiates them from other forms of political organization States are now the most prominent form of political organization found around the world today Nation-States A nation is a group pf people sharing a common symbolic identity culture history and religion A state is a distinct political structure like bands tribes and chiefdoms Nation-state refers to a group of people sharing a common cultural background and unified by a political structure that they consider to be legitimate Few of the world s nation-states have homogenous populations to fit the description of a nation state Political Organization Theories Theories explaining the rise of state systems of government have centered on the question of why people surrender some of their autonomy to the power and authority of the state There are theorists who argue that political organization is influenced by self interest and other theorists argue that self-interest is not enough to give shape to political systems and that such organization often involves a certain amount of coercion Voluntaristic State Formation Some theorists suggest that those engaging in specialized labor voluntarily gave up their autonomy in exchange for perceived benefits Political integration can mediate between and protect interests of varied groups and provide them an economic superstructure required for specialization Chide Hydraulic Theory of State Formation Small-scale farmers in arid or semi-arid areas also voluntarily merged into larger political entities due to the economic advantage of large-scale irrigation Karl Wittfogel Coercive Theory of State Formation Another explanation for state based political organization is that offered by Carneiro hold that states developed as a result of warfare and coercion rather than due to voluntary self-interest Useful Terms Coercion use of force Arid dry Small-scale farmers farmers possessing a little amount of land Irrigation the channeling of water from its natural route for the purposes of agriculture Monopoly dominating the production of a particular product Hydraulic water-based Homogenous identical to others opposite of heterogeneous Recruit to include or to involve Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Cultural Anthropology An Applied Perspective by Ferrarro and or Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Need for Social Control All forms of political organization must provide means for social control Every culture has defined what are considered to be normal proper or expected ways of behaving in society These expected ways of behaving are referred to as social norms Social norms range from etiquette to laws and imply different forms of enforcement and sanctions Breaking some social norms does not result in serious consequences whereas others can result in severe punishment Consider for example the consequence of taking another person s life or of stealing something Social Norms All social norms are sanctioned to varying degrees according to the values held by different cultures Positive social norms reward people for behaving in socially expectable ways ranging from praise or social approval to awards or medals Negative social norms punish people for violating the norms ranging from disapproval to corporal punishment Maintaining Social Control Band and tribal societies Inuit and Kung maintain social control by means of informal mechanisms such as socialization public opinion lineage obligations age organizations and sanctions Societies control behavior by more formal mechanisms such as through laws and law enforcement agencies whose major function is maintaining social order and resolving conflicts Social Control Band and tribal societies Inuit and Kung maintain social control by means of informal mechanisms such as socialization public opinion lineage obligations age organizations and sanctions Societies control behavior by more formal mechanisms whose major function is maintaining social order and resolving conflicts Informal Mechanisms Socialization ensures that people are taught what their social norms are Public opinion or social pressure often serves as an effective mechanism to avoid censure and rejection Age organization provides distinct age categories with defined sets of social roles Formal Mechanisms Song Duets amongst the Inuits to settle disputes Social Intermediaries like the Leopard-skin Chief of the Neur in southern Sudan settles murder disputes by property settlements Moots are formal airings of disputes involving kinsmen and friends of litigants and the adjudicating bodies are ad hoc Courts and Codified Laws forbid individual use of force and provides legal frameworks established by legislative bodies interpreted by judicial bodies and implemented by administrative systems like law enforcement agencies Useful Terms Administrative systems the system of government officials bureaucrats who are responsible for running public affairs Judicial systems the system of courts which interprets the laws Legislative systems systems which provide the laws for a particular society often legislatures or legislative assemblies are elected by the people of a particular locality i e province or a state Law enforcement agencies agencies which enforce the law like the police fro example Litigants aggrieved parties involved in a legal dispute Ad Hoc arbitrary not following any established procedure PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE Psychological Development Anthropologists are interested in the psychological differences and similarities between societies and cultures of the world Cultural Anthropologists reject stereotypes based on hasty ethnocentric judgments Anthropological Queries in Psychology The major questions of relevance to cultural anthropologists attempting to understand the linkage between different cultures and what they can reveal about the human personality are Do all human beings develop psychologically in the same way What explains the psychological differences in personality characteristics from one society to another How do people in different societies conceive of personality and psychological development What types of cultural variations may be explained due to cultural factors Emotional Development Early research in anthropology was concerned mainly with supposedly universal stages of emotional development which seems to be affected by cultural differences Margaret Mead found Samoan girls were much less rebellious or emotional turmoil than those in western societies In western societies adolescence is a time of turmoil that helps prepare emotionally for independence Psychological Universals The ability to make binary contrasts order phenomenon plan for the future and have an understanding of the world are universal psychological traits All people have a concept of the self they can empathize with others and feel and recognize emotions in others Cognition and Culture Recent research on psychological universals focuses on cognitive or intellectual development For example it considers how different cultures acquire thinking habits such as formal-operation notions which enable a person to think of the possible outcomes of a hypothetical situation In looking for universals many researchers have discovered some apparent differences Yet most tests used in anthropological research favors thinking patterns taught in formal schools in Western cultures Cross-Cultural Variations Instead of focusing on uniqueness anthropologists look at psychological differences found within and between different cultures Researchers focus on child rearing practices to account for observable personality differences Some anthropologists believe that child rearing practices are adaptive and societies produce personalities according to their requirements obedience self-reliance etc Useful Terms Universal common in all cultures Formal schools schools organized by the public or private sector but with a standardized curriculum and professional teaching staff Variations differences Rearing bringing up Intellectual concerning the intellect and the process of thinking Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine Socialization Socialization is the term that psychologists and anthropologists use to describe the development of through the influence of parents and others of patterns of behavior in children that conform to cultural expectations Direct and Indirect Socialization Socialization takes place both directly and indirectly Indirectly the degree to which parents like children the kinds of work children are asked to do and whether children go to school may at least partially influence how children develop psychologically Origin of Customs Anthropologists not only seek to understand the link between personality traits and customs but also how customs were themselves developed Some anthropologists believe that societies produce the kind of customs best suited for undertaking activities necessary for the survival of society Personality Types Several anthropologists have tried to describe the influence of culture on personality In the early 's for example David Riesman proposed that there are three common types of personalities around the world The tradition-oriented personality places a strong emphasis on doing things the same way that they have always been done Individuals with this sort of personality are less likely to try new things and to seek new experiences Those who have inner-directed personalities are guilt oriented That is to say their behavior is strongly controlled by their conscience As a result there is little need for police to make sure that they obey the law These individuals monitor themselves If they break the law they are likely to turn themselves in for punishment In contrast people with other-directed personalities have ambiguous feelings about right and wrong When they deviate from a societal norm they usually don't feel guilty However if they are caught in the act or exposed publicly they are likely to feel shame Abnormal Behavior Just as there are cross-cultural variations in normal behavior there are also variations in abnormal behavior Abnormality is relative to a degree and a culture s ideas about mental illness and how to deal with it can also vary Applied Perspective Anthropologists are interested in understanding the possible cause of psychological differences and the possible consequences of psychological variation Anthropologists are particularly interested in how psychological characteristics may help explain statistical associations between various aspects of culture Projective Testing People tend to project their feelings ideas and concerns onto ambiguous realities In Thematic Appreciation Tests subjects are shown vague drawings and asked to interpret them by projecting their own personalities An aggressive person may see a weapon in a vague drawing whereas a more industrious person may visualize a more productive tool in the same vague drawing Useful Terms Ambiguous unclear or vague Variation differences Socialization the process of learning behavior Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Anthropology by Ember and Pergrine IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE Ideology An ideology is a collection of ideas An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision as a way of looking at things Ideology can also be seen as a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society For example different types of gender ideologies would describe what roles are expected of women and men in a society The ideology of economic liberalization could be seen to particularly promote the interests of the business classes Ideology in Everyday Life Every society has an ideology that forms the basis of the public opinion or common sense a basis that usually remains invisible to most people within the society This dominant ideology appears as neutral while all others that differ from the norm are often seen as radical no matter what the actual circumstances may be Influencing Ideology Organizations that strive for power influence the ideology of a society to provide a favorable environment for them Political organizations governments included and other groups e g lobbyists try to influence people by broadcasting their opinions which is the reason why so often many people in a society seem to think alike A certain ethic usually forms the basis of an ideology Ideology studied as ideology rather than examples of specific ideologies has been carried out under the name systematic ideology There are many different kinds of ideology political social epistemological ethical The popularity of an ideology is in part due to the influence of moral entrepreneurs who sometimes act in their own interests A political ideology is the body of ideals principles doctrine myth or symbols of a social movement institution class or large group that references some political and cultural plan It can be a construct of political thought often defining political parties and their policy Hegemony When most people in a society think alike about certain matters or even forget that there are alternatives to the current state of affairs we arrive at the concept of Hegemony about which the philosopher Antonio Gramsci wrote The much smaller-scale concept of groupthink also owes something to his work The ideologies of the dominant class of a society are proposed to all members of that society in order to make the ruling class' interests appear to be the interests of all and thereby achieve hegemony To reach this goal ideology makes use of a special type of discourse the lacunar discourse A number of propositions which are never untrue suggest a number of other propositions which are In this way the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told but is suggested Epistemological ideologies Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged as in science the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges theories or experiments from being advanced The philosophy of science mostly concerns itself with reducing the impact of these prior ideologies so that science can proceed with its primary task which is according to science to create knowledge There are critics who view science as an ideology itself called scientism Some scientists respond that while the scientific method is itself an ideology as it is a collection of ideas there is nothing particularly wrong or bad about it Other critics point out that while science itself is not a misleading ideology there are some fields of study within science that are misleading Two examples discussed here are in the fields of ecology and economics Useful Terms Discourse discussion or dialogue Proposition proposal or plan Paradigm standard pattern or example Doctrine set of guidelines Comprehensive complete all-inclusive Ecology concerning the species found in the natural environment Moral entrepreneurs those who make up new morals according to their cultural needs Political ideologies In social studies a political ideology is a set of ideas and principles that explain how the society should work and offer the blueprint for a certain social order A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used For example one of the most influential and well-defined political ideologies of the th century was communism based on the original formulations of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Communism is a term that can refer to one of several things a certain social system an ideology which supports that system or a political movement that wishes to implement that system As a social system communism is a type of egalitarian society with no state no private property and no social classes In communism all property is owned by the community as a whole and all people enjoy equal social and economic status Perhaps the best known principle of a communist society is From each according to his ability to each according to his need As an ideology communism is synonymous for Marxism and its various derivatives most notably Marxism-Leninism Among other things Marxism claims that human society has gone through various stages of development throughout its history and that capitalism is the current stage we are going through The next stage will be socialism and the one after that will be communism Therefore it should be noted that communists do not seek to establish communism right away they seek to establish socialism first which is to be followed by communism at some point in the future Other examples of ideologies include anarchism capitalism corporate liberalism fascism monarchism nationalism fascism conservativism and social-democracy Economic Ideology Karl Marx proposed a base superstructure model of society The base refers to the means of production of society The superstructure is formed on top of the base and comprises that society's ideology as well as its legal system political system and religions Marx proposed that the base determines the superstructure It is the ruling class that controls the society's means of production - and thus the superstructure of society including its ideology will be determined according to what is in the ruling class' best interests On the other hand critics of the Marxist approach feel that it attributes too much importance to economic factors in influencing society This is far from the only theory of economics to be raised to ideology status - some notable economically-based ideologies include mercantilism Social Darwinism communism laissez-faire economics and free trade There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade calling for a revision in terms of trade which can be seen as ideologies These ideologies call for a revision of rules based on which trade between developed and developing countries takes place Interaction between Legal and Economic Ideologies Ideologies often interact with and influence each other in the real world Consider for example the statement 'All are equal before the law' which is a theory behind current legal systems suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal 'opportunities' This is not true because the concept of private property over the means of production results in some people being able to own more much more than others and their property brings power and influence the rich can afford better lawyers among other things and this puts in question the principle of equality before the law Useful Terms Fair trade the notion that all countries should be given a fair price for the products they export through international trade Terms of trade the price which products of different countries fetch in international trade Means of production these include land labor capital investments required to produce something Inevitable - unavoidable Synonymous another term carrying the same meaning ASSOCIATIONS CULTURES AND SOCIETIES What Are Associations Associations are non-kin and non-territorial groups found amidst all types of societies and cultures around the world Associations possess some kind of formal organizational structure and their members also have common interests and a sense of purpose which binds the varied types of societies together Cultural anthropologists are interested in examining how different cultures give shape to different types of associations and in turn what functions different types of associations perform within particular cultures Variation in Associations Associations can vary from society to society They vary according to whether or not they are voluntary and whether the qualities of members are universally ascribed variably ascribed or achieved Qualifications for Associations Achieved qualities or skills are those acquired through one s own efforts there may be hurdles in acquiring necessary skills but by and large skills have to be learnt through personal effort as they are not biologically transferable Ascribed qualities are determined at birth because of gender or ethnicity or family background A person does not need to make an effort to acquire ascribed qualities nor can effort do much in changing ascribed status since it is largely determined by forces beyond the control of individuals Universally ascribed qualities are found in all societies Gender is an example of an ascribed quality Variably ascribed qualities are unique and thus vary across cultures like ethnicity social class differences etc Non-Voluntary Associations In relatively non-stratified societies associations tend to be based on universally ascribed characteristics like gender and age An age set is a common form of non-voluntary associations evidenced around the world even today Age Sets An age grade includes a category of people who fall into a culturally distinguished age category An age set on the other hand is a group of people of similar age and the same sex who move through some or all of life s stages together Entry into an age set is usually through an initiation ceremony and transitions to new stages are marked by succession rituals In non-commercial societies age sets crosscut kinship ties and form strong supplemental bonds Age sets are prominent amongst the Nadi of Kenya for example Young warriors were given spears and shields in the past and told to bring back wealth to the community now they re given pens and paper by their elders and told to go out and do the same The Karimojong are predominantly cattle herders and number people living in northeastern Uganda who are organized via age and generation sets including age-sets covering years The retired generation passes on the mantle of authority to the senior generation and the junior generation recruits members until ready to assume authority and thus the society continues to function in a seamless manner Useful Terms Recruit to admit or to actively enlist Supplemental added on so as to help reinforce existing ties Characteristics identifying features Seamless continuous Organizational having features of an organization like defined roles and responsibilities Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Anthropology by Ember Regional and Ethnic Associations Regional and ethnic organizations are voluntary associations whose members possess variably ascribed characteristics Both forms of associations are usually found in societies where technological advance is accelerating bringing with it numerous forms of economic and social complexities as well Regional and Ethnic Associations Despite a variety of types regional and ethnic associations commonly emphasize helping members adapt to new conditions particularly if they are migrants Many rural migrants keep members in touch with home area traditions by the help of regional associations These associations promote improved living conditions for members who have recently migrated to urban areas in several countries where urbanization is taking place at a fast pace Examples of Regional Associations Regional associations serranos help rural migrants adapt to urban life and Lima Peru The serranos have been seen to actively lobby the government on community issues assist members with enculturation organize fiestas and act as clearing house for flow of information Chinatowns in major cities of the world have associations performing a similar function for Chinese immigrants Ethnic Associations Ethnic Associations are based on ethic ties Such associations are particularly prominent in urban centers of West Africa Even tribal unions are commonly found in Ghana and Nigeria which superimpose the notion of ethnicity with that of tribal ties Rotating Credit Associations Such associations are based on the principle of mutual aid Each group member contributes regularly to a fund which is handed over to one member on a rotation basis Such associations are common in East South and southeastern Asia in western Africa and the West Indies Default is rare in rotating credit associations due to social pressure and the incentive is reasonable since membership ranges from to contributors Since no collateral is needed trustworthiness is considered essential when letting people become members of such groups Multi-ethnic Associations Associations with a common purpose of economic or socio-political empowerment are often multi-ethnic Savings and loan associations in New Guinea often link women from different tribal areas Formation of Associations Age sets arise in societies which have frequent warfare breaking out amidst them or it is found amongst groups with varying populations due to which kinship systems are not sufficient for alliance purposes Urbanization and economic compulsions lack of access to credit also form associations due to the need to cooperate out of self-interest Useful Terms Collateral the act of pledging an asset in order to qualify from a loan from a lending institution like a bank Empowerment to empower or reinforce the capacity of individuals Multi-ethnic different ethnic groups coexisting within the same society Default being unable to pay back a loan Suggested Readings Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various principals highlighted in this hand-out Chapter in Anthropology by Ember RACE ETHNICITY AND CULTURE Ethnicity Ethnicity refers to selected cultural and sometimes physical characteristics used to classify people into ethnic groups or categories considered to be significantly different from others Commonly recognized American ethnic groups include American Indians Latinos Chinese African Americans European Americans etc In some cases ethnicity involves merely a loose group