human sex midterm outline

Chapter 1: Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality What drives us to have sex? Psychological factors: Both stable psychological traits and moment-to-moment states can affect sexual behavior (Personality (e.g., Big Five, erotophilia), learned associations, attitudes, mood states, and distraction) Each has bidirectional effects on sexual behavior Sociocultural factors: Virtually all cultures & societies regulate sexual behavior (But standards of “normalcy” and “deviance” vary) Factors that influence sexual behavior include: Religion (Contrast the permissiveness of the ancient Greeks and Romans to the early Christians, Islam and Taoism viewed sex within marriage in very positive terms) Science Popular media: TV has become more sexually explicit over time, Internet (cybersex, sexting), To what extent does the media reflect our attitudes toward sex vs. shape sexual attitudes? Biological & evolutionary factors Biological factors: Genetics and hormones (homosexuality appears to have a genetic component, psychological masculinity/femininity are related to prenatal hormone exposure) Evolutionary factors: Evidenced by similarities in the sexual behaviors of humans and other species Psychological Theories of Human Sexuality Psychoanalytic theory: Originated with Freud, who believed human behavior is driven by sex (libido) and death (thanatos), humans have a personality structure consisting of three components (id, ego, superego), humans pass through five stages of psychosexual development; fixation may lead to unusual sexual interests and behaviors in adulthood Limitations: Freudian theory smacks of sexism (e.g., penis envy) and based largely on case reports Cognitive-behavioral theories: Grew out of the behaviorism movement: observable behavior should be the primary unit of analysis Our behaviors (sexual and otherwise) largely represent learned associations: new associations can always be learned Classical conditioning (Pavlov, 1927): Repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that causes a specific behavior can lead that neutral stimulus to become a cue for that behavior Operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938): Reinforced behaviors increase in frequency; punished behaviors decrease Social learning (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1962): We imitate behaviors that we observe in others, O’Hara and colleagues (2012): adolescents exposed to more sexual content in movies take more sexual risks All learning theories are depersonalized and do not seem to account for role of biology Exchange theories: How we feel about a given relationship depends upon the outcomes we receive: Outcomes held to a comparison level (i.e., are we getting what we think we deserve?) Sex is theorized to be a commonly traded resource in relationships (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004) Of course, not all behavior is driven by a cost–benefit analysis (e.g., sometimes we are selfless) Personality theories Theorizes that relatively stable individual differences drive behavior: The Big Five: General personality factors related to sexual behavior, particularly extraversion and agreeableness Erotophilia and erotophobia: Aspects of personality that encompass how individuals approach sex Sensation seeking: Tendency to pursue thrilling and risky activities (including risky sex), may be genetically based Sociosexuality: One’s willingness to have sex without commitment or an emotional connection (Restricted vs. unrestricted orientation) Evolutionary theory: Humans have a motivation to produce as many offspring as possible Men and women have evolved different mating strategies because the parental investment necessary to make a child varies, Men are thought to look for partners who are healthy & fertile; women thought to look for reliable partners with resources Biopsychosocial theory: Each of the previous theories has its own limitations, and it is clear that psychology is only part of the picture We will adopt a biopsychosocial perspective, sexuality and sexual behavior are products of biological, psychological, & social forces Takes a holistic approach to the study of sex: Considers entire person, Mind and body interconnected Sexual health is more than just the absence of disease and dysfunction Chapter 2: Sexology Research: History, Methods, and Ethics Why study sex? “It is admittedly the most important subject in life. It is admittedly the thing that causes the most shipwrecks in the happiness of men and women. And yet our scientific knowledge is so meager… Those of us who try to salvage some of the shipwrecks need to have a thousand questions answered before we can guide other human beings intelligently. And we want them answered not by our mothers and grandmothers, not by priests and clergymen in the interest of middle-class mores, nor by general practitioners, not even by Freudians; we… want them answered by scientifically-trained students of sex.” -John B. Watson (as cited in Magoun, 1981, p. 374) Sexology The scientific study of sex Operates as any other field of science (e.g., use of the scientific method) An emerging and interdisciplinary field in which psychology plays a vital role Conducting Sexology Research: Two classes of studies: non-experimental and experimental All studies begin with sample selection Identify target population, and draw a smaller group (i.e., a sample) you will actually study Random selection is the ideal method i.e., everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate But convenience samples are the reality Non-experimental Studies: Surveys: Participants self-report on own sexual attitudes & behaviors Strengths: Quick and easy way of collecting data from a large pool Multiple modes of administration (e.g., internet, in-person interview) Limitations: Nonresponse Not everyone is willing to participate; harms representativeness Self-selection Participants in sex studies are more experienced & have more positive attitudes (Plaud et al., 1999) Socially desirable responding e.g., Alexander and Fisher (2003): women reported different sexual attitudes based upon whether they thought their results would become known to others Writing a good sex survey: Pay attention to use of language and terminology Is it appropriate for audience? Avoid leading and loaded questions Pay attention to potential question order effects Examples of major sex surveys: The Kinsey Reports (Kinsey et al., 1948, 1953) Face-to-face survey of 5300 men and 5940 women Non-representative Release of results shocked American public for suggesting that “deviant” practices are common National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS; Laumann et al., 1994) First nationally representative sex survey in the US 3432 persons aged 18–59 Suggested Americans more conservative than Kinsey National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB; Herbenick et al., 2010) Largest & most diverse national survey to date (5865 persons aged 14–94) All data collected online Will be referenced frequently Direct observation: Researchers record results with their own eyes or via some technology Strengths: Reduces participant response biases Can be preserved on film Limitations: Self-selection Only 15% of college students in one study said they would participate in a subsequent direct observation study (Plaud et al., 1999) study (Plaud et al., 1999) Reactivity Will participants alter their behavior? Expensive & difficult to conduct Masters and Johnson: Conducted most famous observational sex research Human Sexual Response was based on studies of 694 persons aged 18–89 Nonrepresentative Observed how men’s and women’s bodies respond to sexual stimulation Their research was controversial and deemed “pornographic” Direct observation technologies: Penile strain gauge Assesses changes in penile circumference Vaginal photoplethysmograph Measures arousal via changes in vaginal blood volume via reflected light Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Allows us to see what areas of the brain “light up” during sexual arousal Case reports: Collecting data from one participant or a small group in great depth Generally represents an unusual case Strengths: Depth and detail of information Limitations: Limited generalizability, potential response biases Experimental studies: Researchers manipulate or change the independent variable to see its effects on the dependent variable Only method of determining cause-and-effect To determine causality, confounding factors must be controlled and participants must be randomly assigned to experimental conditions Strengths: Can allow for claims of causality Limitations: Experiments are not always ethical or practical to conduct May lack external validity (i.e., generalizability) due to artificial lab setting Statistical issues: Means refer to the mathematical average; medians refer to the 50th percentile “Average” and “normal” are not synonymous. Normal is a range of responses, not a single number Incidence refers to number of new cases in a period of time; prevalence refers to total current number of cases Correlation refers to the statistical association between two variables Positive, negative, or zero Only summarizes nature of association and tells nothing of causality Sexology research ethics: Sexology has had its history of ethical lapses, just like the field of psychology e.g., Tearoom Trade Study (Humphreys, 1970), Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ethical requirements exist in modern times 1. Informed consent Subjects make a conscious decision based on true nature of study Deception is permissible under certain circumstances 2. Debriefing Subjects are informed of the research purpose afterward; misconceptions corrected 3. Confidentiality Subjects’ privacy must be protected, although the law may place certain limitations on this Evaluating Sex Research: Consider the following any time you come across the results of a sex poll or study: Who conducted the study and why? What are the characteristics of the sample? To whom can we generalize these results? Were the survey questions high quality and free from bias? Chapter 3: Human Sexual Anatomy Why study anatomy in a psychology course? Anatomy has psychological importance Lack of knowledge can: Prevent recognition of health threats Create body image and anxiety Generate sexual dysfunction and relationship problems Teaching anatomy is also a common component of sex therapy Caveats before proceeding: Sexual anatomy and gender identity are distinct e.g., transsexual persons Not everyone has a penis or vulva e.g., intersexed persons Male sexual anatomy: External anatomy The penis consists of three parts: the internal root, and the external shaft and glans The meatus (urethral opening) is at the tip of the glans The corona is the distinctive ridge encircling the glans An evolutionary adaptation? The penis: Foreskin covers the glans, unless removed via circumcision Circumcision is controversial. Some argue that it has hygienic and health benefits, others argue that represents a form of genital “mutilation” In some Polynesian cultures, a superincision is made that reveals the glans without foreskin removal Penile appearance and size varies widely, but the average non-erect penis is 3.5” (9 cm) long while the average erect length is 6” (15 cm) (Templer, 2002) Scrotum: A loose pouch of skin that hangs beneath the penis & houses the testes Sparsely covered in pubic hair; size and appearance vary greatly Internal anatomy Three cylinders run the length of the penis: 2 cavernous bodies and a spongy body, which encircles the urethra and forms the glans All contain erectile tissue Muscles at the base of the penis assist in ejaculation Can be strengthened via Kegel exercises Internal anatomy: Two testes inside the scrotum (usually). Each testis has two functions: Production of sex hormones Production of sperm Inside the testes are the seminiferous tubules, which manufacture sperm, and the interstitial cells, which produce sex hormones Sperm production: Once produced, sperm mature in the epididymis and are eventually carried away by the vas deferens The cremaster muscle moves the testes closer or further from the body to regulate optimal temperature for sperm Semen: The vas deferens empties into the ejaculatory duct, where sperm are combined with secretions from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland to create semen Secretions assist in sperm nutrition and motility Prior to the release of semen, the Cowper’s glands release a pre-ejaculate that alkalinizes the urethra The average man produces one to two teaspoons of fluid during each ejaculation, containing hundreds of millions of sperm cells Psychology of the penis Penis size is usually men’s biggest genital concern 35% of gay men and 45% of heterosexual men wish they were a different size (Grov et al., 2010; Lever et al., 2006) Be warned that “natural male enhancement” and penile augmentation are not guaranteed to work and have not been thoroughly tested by researchers Men with larger penises have better body image; however, larger penises are not necessarily preferred by female partners in heterosexual relationships Psychology of the penis: Some men are concerned about the size of their scrotum Some men also receive sexual pleasure from increasing their scrotal size (“scrotal infusion”) Cross-culturally, genital concerns vary Dhat: fear of semen loss, found among men on the Indian subcontinent Koro: fear that the penis is retracting into the body, found among men in southeast Asia Male genital health issues Cleanse the penis to avoid buildup of smegma Self-exams can reveal STIs and cancers Erections can be “fractured” through forceful sex or bending pressure Take care with sex toys Female sexual anatomy: External anatomy Vulva Refers to all of the external genital structures Sometimes referred to as the “pudendum,” which is derived from the Latin term that means “to be ashamed” Mons veneris At the top of the vulva Covered in pubic hair (often removed) Protects internal structures Structures of the vulva: Labia majora (outer lips) Encases genital structures Labia minora (inner lips) Highly sensitive to stimulation Encases urethral and vaginal openings Prepuce (clitoral hood) Just beneath the mons; akin to male foreskin Clitoris Composed of glans, shaft and internal root (crura) Swells during sexual arousal Only known purpose is sexual pleasure More women reach orgasm via clitoral stimulation than vaginal penetration (Fugl-Meyer et al., 2006) Inside the vestibule is the introitus (vaginal opening) and urethral opening (meatus) Bartholin’s glands exist on either side of the introitus Genital scent? The hymen partially covers the introitus, usually until first intercourse Hymen is sometimes replaced through surgery to demonstrate virginity at marriage The perineum is the strip of skin between the introitus and the anus Female genital cutting (FGC): Damaging or removing the clitoris and other parts of the vulva when not medically necessary three forms: sunna, clitoridectomy, and infibulation Practiced in some African cultures, often to ensure virginity until marriage High risk of infection and childbirth problems Some groups are fighting to end this practice, but they face legal and other complications Internal anatomy Pelvic floor muscles Contract during orgasm and assist in childbirth Can be strengthened through Kegel exercises Vagina Canal that extends from introitus to uterus Walls secrete lubricating fluid during arousal Inner portion of vagina has fewer nerve endings Internal anatomy: Vestibular bulbs Collections of spongy tissue on each side of the vagina near the introitus Expand during arousal Grafenberg spot (“G-spot”) Supposedly on front wall of vagina just a few inches inside Stimulation of this area may produce intense orgasm followed by ejaculation of fluid Described by some as a “gynecological UFO”—unclear whether it is a distinct site or the internal part of the clitoris Cervix Lower portion of the uterus Assists in helping sperm enter and exit A source of sexual pleasure for some women Uterus Protects and nourishes fetus during pregnancy Endometrial lining sheds during each menstrual cycle Fallopian tubes Extend from either side of uterus Fimbriae “catch” eggs and draw them into the tubes Fertilized eggs occasionally implant in the tubes creating an ectopic pregnancy Ovaries At the end of each fallopian tube Two functions: production of sex hormones and release of eggs Breasts Considered secondary sex characteristics Nipple surrounded by darkened areola Nipple releases milk during breastfeeding Nipple stimulation can produce orgasm in some women Internally, breasts are composed of mammary glands, which produce milk, and fat cells, which determine breast size Breasts: Appearance varies considerably across women Pendulous breasts are thought to have evolved for a reason Genital echo theory (Fisher, 1992) Psychology of the breasts and vulva Breast size is one of women’s biggest concerns Only 30% of women report being satisfied (Frederick et al., 2008) Specific concerns vary with age (i.e., size vs. drooping) Breast augmentation is a popular cosmetic surgery, but it does carry some risks Psychology of the breasts and vulva: Some women are concerned about the appearance of their vulva Procedures sought include labial reduction surgery, vaginal “rejuvenation,” and “G-spot amplification” However, none of these procedures have been subject to rigorous study and are not guaranteed to work as advertised These procedures and evidence of a sexual double standard, in which women’s bodies are judged more harshly than men’s Female breast and genital health issues Menstrual cycle issues Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) Most women experience some symptoms during menstruation Menstrual cycle issues: Dysmenorrhea – painful menstruation Primary: caused by overproduction of prostaglandins Secondary: caused by pre-existing medical condition (e.g., endometriosis) Amenorrhea – absent menstruation Primary: failure to menstruate by age 16 Secondary: established period disappears Maintaining gynecological health: Have good hygiene, but avoid douching Perform genital self-exams and receive regular gynecological exams Pap tests (for cervical cancer), Govt. recommendation: every three years starting at 21 Breast self-exams are not a substitute for regular clinical exams Govt. recommendation: biennially starting at 50 Chapter 4: Gender and Gender Identity Key terms: Sex: the term used to describe whether someone is biologically male or female Gender: a psychosocial term that encompasses the psychological, cultural, and social characteristics we ascribe to men and women Gender identity: an individual’s psychological perception of being male or female Gender roles: the set of cultural norms and rules that dictate how men and women “should” behave Gender stereotypes: overgeneralized beliefs about the nature of men and women Factors that influence gender identity: Biological Psychosocial Social interactions Physical environments Media Biological influences on gender identity: Three levels of biological sex: Chromosomal sex (XX vs. XY) Gonadal sex (ovaries vs. testes) Hormonal sex (estrogens vs. androgens) Hormones appear to play a particularly important role in masculinizing/feminizing the brain Prenatal hormone exposure is thought to affect the hypothalamus The preoptic area (POA) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) are larger in men than in women Rat studies have found that early testosterone exposure affects size (Rhees et al., 1990) In transsexuals, the size of these structures more closely matches their gender identity than their biological sex. A possible hormonal origin of transsexualism? Biological Sex Variations: Persons who appear to possess both male and female biological traits are intersexed Approximately 2% of live births (Blackless et al., 2000) Intersex variations inform us about the relative contributions biology and social learning make to gender identity Klinefelter’s syndrome: XXY chromosome combination Anatomic male with some feminized features (e.g., increased breast tissue) Low interest in sex Usually identify as male No increased incidence of same-sex attraction Turner’s syndrome: Single X-chromosome (45XO) Feminine body and genital appearance, but internal reproductive structures are not functional Puberty must be induced by physician—affects later interest in sex Female gender identity Not linked to same-sex attraction .Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS): In cases of complete AIS: XY male whose body is insensitive to androgens Feminine genital appearance Usually not detected until puberty, when there is a failure to menstruate Female gender identity Most are attracted to men In cases of partial AIS: XY male that does not respond completely to androgens Genital appearance includes a mix of male and female structures Genital-altering surgery sometimes performed during infancy to remove perceived ambiguity, but this approach is not necessarily in the child’s best interests Can identify as male or female Sexual attraction patterns are variable 5-alpha-reductase deficiency (5?RD): XY male unable to convert testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Has testes, but a feminized genital appearance until puberty, when penis begins to grow Usually identify as female during childhood, male starting at puberty Most are attracted to women as adults Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): XX female with adrenal gland producing high levels of androgens Masculinized genital appearance Usually identify as female, but with masculine interests Most are attracted to men, but higher prevalence of same-sex attraction Men with CAH are similar to unaffected men in most regards What intersex variations tell us about the origins of gender identity: Deviations from typical biological pattern make gender identity difficult to predict Prenatal hormone exposure is extremely influential (5?RD, AIS, CAH) But biology does not tell the whole story e.g., In Turner’s syndrome, a female gender identity can be learned in the absence of a 2nd X-chromosome, ovaries, and sex hormones Psychosocial influences on gender identity: Social interactions and norms Adult men and women interact differently with infants depending upon how the child is dressed (Stern & Karraker, 1989) Others’ expectations elicit gendered behavior in us (self-fulfilling prophecy) Peers, teachers, and religion all teach us about gender as well Physical environments Environments created by parents (e.g., bedroom color, clothing selections) Environments created by society (e.g., aisles in toy stores) Media TV, Internet, movies, music, etc. tend to present men and women in stereotypical ways More exposure to media linked to more traditional gender role beliefs in adolescents Variations in gender expression: Transgender: someone whose behaviors or appearance are not consistent with societal gender roles Several variations Transsexualism Gender identity does not match biological sex Gender dysphoria is the clinical term applied when this incongruence causes distress Transsexualism: Controversy over whether transsexualism should even appear in the DSM Does it unfairly stigmatize the community? Is transsexualism even a psychological issue, or is it physical? Identification with other sex usually begins at a young age Male-to-female (MTF) Female-to-male (FTM) Sexual orientation usually defined in relation to gender identity, not biological sex Sex reassignment surgery may be performed on adults Interview process, transition period, and hormone therapy precede surgery Surgical outcomes generally favorable, and many retain ability to achieve orgasm For trans youth, puberty-blocking drugs may be administered Controversial Transphobia is common and highly correlated with homophobia Some cultures are more accepting of gender variations than others e.g., Two-spirit phenomenon in some Native American cultures Variations in gender expression: Cross-dressing The act of wearing clothing of the other sex Transvestism: obtaining sexual gratification from cross-dressing Drag kings and queens: individuals who cross-dress for performance art or a career Other identities Androgynous: presence of masculine and feminine psychological characteristics Bigendered: may change gender roles depending upon context Genderqueer: persons who fall outside binary gender classifications (e.g., third gender, genderless) Are men and women really that different?: According to the popular media, “men are from Mars and women are from Venus” While there are certainly some difference, they are often smaller than we are led to believe and may have cultural origins Sex differences in psychology: Big Five personality factors Women tend to score higher in agreeableness and neuroticism However, such differences vary across cultures, which suggests a sociocultural explanation Aggression Men tend to engage in more aggressive behavior than women However, this is at least partly explained by the fact that men are provoked more often than women Communication Women are better at decoding nonverbal behavior But is this just because we expect women to be more sensitive to others’ feelings? Sex differences in sexuality and attitudes toward sex: Men think about sex, masturbate, and use porn more than women. Men are also more willing to have casual sex Some argue that these differences are a product of different evolved mating strategies e.g., perhaps it is more adaptive for men to have permissive attitudes toward sex because it facilitates their reproductive success However, others argue for sociocultural origins e.g., women report different sexual histories when hooked up to a lie detector (Alexander & Fisher, 2003). Perhaps there is more social pressure on women to underreport Women tend to have more erotic plasticity than men Women’s sexuality is more “flexible” and responsive to sociocultural pressures Is sexuality organized differently in the brains of men and women? Chapter 5: Human Sexual Response: Understanding Arousal and Orgasm Factors that influence sexual arousal: The brain 1. The limbic system Several important structures deep within the brain including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala The “pleasure center” Damage to this area decreases sexual behavior; electrical stimulation can trigger orgasm 2. The cerebral cortex Controls thoughts, memories, imagination, and use of language Source of sexual fantasies 3. Neurotransmitters Dopamine: facilitates arousal and orgasm Serotonin: inhibits arousal and orgasm Sexual side effects of SSRIs B. The senses 1. Touch Primary erogenous zones: parts of the body with many nerve endings (e.g., genitals, breasts) Secondary erogenous zones: areas that become erotically sensitive via conditioning 2. Vision Cultural standards determine what is attractive Belief that men are more visually aroused than women may be incorrect Chivers et al. (2004): women demonstrated genital arousal in response to a wider range of erotic stimuli than men 3. Smell Sexually arousing scents are partly a function of cultural standards and prior learning Scents may affect us unconsciously via pheromones (i.e., chemicals that transmit sexual signals) Cutler et al. (1998) and McCoy & Pitino (2002): participants who wore pheromones daily had more sex than those who wore a placebo solution 4. Hearing Variable role across persons Female copulatory vocalizations facilitate heterosexual men’s orgasms (Levin, 2006) 5. Taste Variable role across persons Intertwined with sense of smell C. Hormones 1. Testosterone (T) Secreted by gonads and adrenal glands Affects sexual arousal in men and women Low levels of T (e.g., as a result of hypogonadism, oophorectomy, etc.) can be treated with testosterone replacement therapy Drugs that block testosterone sometimes given to sex offenders (“chemical castration”) 2. Oxytocin Manufactured in the brain Plays a role in bonding between sexual and romantic partners Case studies find that oxytocin seems to facilitate sexual arousal D. Substances 1. Aphrodisiacs Substances that enhance sexual desire and behavior Effects of aphrodisiac foods are often attributable to the placebo effect (i.e., the power of suggestion) Alcohol can be an aphrodisiac in small doses; may be a result of expectancy effects Effects of other drugs (e.g., marijuana, ecstasy) are variable across persons and dosage dependent 2. Anaphrodisiacs Substances that inhibit sexual desire and behavior May be useful for treating hypersexuality and sex offenders e.g., Depo-Provera (an androgen-blocking drug) Model of sexual response: A. Masters and Johnson model Most widely known and used Based on observations of over 10,000 complete cycles Four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution Two important bodily processes underlie the changes observed in these phases: Vasocongestion: increased blood flow Myotonia: increased muscle tension Excitement: Marked by increased blood flow to the genital tissues (e.g., erection of the penis, swelling of the clitoris & labia) Sex flush may occur in some Length varies across persons & situations A biopsychosocial event Plateau: Tensions become more pronounced An extension of excitement (some scholars make no distinction between these phases) Cowper’s secretion occurs in men; orgasmic platform develops in women Lasts a few seconds to a few minutes Orgasm: Contraction of muscles in the genital region Usually coincides with ejaculation in men (sometimes in women too) Orgasm typically follows plateau for men; somewhat less likely for women Usually highly pleasurable Theories of female orgasm: What purpose does the female orgasm serve? Is it a “sperm retention mechanism?” Orgasm might help draw sperm into the uterus Does it assist in mate choice? Female orgasm may be designed to occur only with the highest-quality mates Is it just a “fantastic bonus?” Perhaps it has no purpose and is just a byproduct of the fact that the male orgasm is so heavily favored by evolution Sex differences in orgasm: Women can have different “types” of orgasm Women can achieve multiple orgasms Male refractory period may prevent this (i.e., no additional stimulation can produce another orgasm) Women are more likely to fake orgasms Resolution: Return to non-aroused states People’s behaviors vary widely during this stage Models of sexual response: B. The Triphasic Model (Helen Singer Kaplan) Attempt to infuse more psychology into the Masters and Johnson approach Three stages: desire, excitement orgasm Desire stage is controversial because desire does not necessarily have to precede sexual response Configured so as to be more applicable to sex therapy e.g., Resolution phase dropped because it is rare to have problems in this stage C. The Erotic Stimulus Pathway Theory (David Reed) An even more psychologically-based theory Four stages: seduction, sensations, surrender, reflection Focuses on cognitive changes that occur at each step Chapter 6: Sexual Orientation Definition and measurement: Sexual orientation: the unique pattern of sexual and romantic desire, behavior, and identity each person expresses Categorical vs. continuum measurement Example of continuum: the Kinsey Scale Allows for more variability and possibility of change However, most measures do not capture all sexualities (e.g., asexuality, pansexuality) Asexuality: no interest in partnered sexual activity Pansexuality: attraction to all sexes and gender identities Prevalence: Kinsey’s estimates were probably artificially high due to nonrandom sampling More recent studies have produced highly variable estimates depending upon how the question was asked Theories of sexual orientation: Early psychological theories Freud argued that humans are polymorphously perverse (i.e., we can derive pleasure from almost anything) He also argued that homosexuality stems from fixation while passing through certain developmental stages Biological and hormonal theories: 1. Differences in brain structure LeVay’s (1991) studies Differences in hypothalamic structure size based on sexuality However, homosexuality was confounded with having AIDS fMRI research: differences in amygdala and brain symmetry based upon sexuality (Savic & Lindstrom, 2008) 2. Heterosexuals have more symmetrical faces than gays & lesbians (Hughes & Bremme, 2011) 3. Gays and lesbians more likely to be left-handed 4. Gays and lesbians have different 2D : 4D finger-length ratios (Williams et al., 2000) 5. The more older brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be gay (Blanchard & Bogaert, 1996) 6. Identical twins are more likely to share the same sexual orientation than fraternal twins Prenatal hormone exposure may explain many of these effects; however, none of these effects are true 100% of the time, which means something else is also at play Evolutionary theories: “Gay uncle” hypothesis Perhaps gay men help support their relatives’ children? Homosexuality as a byproduct of female fertility (Camperio-Ciana et al., 2004) Alloparenting hypothesis Having a “flexible” sexuality might have been adaptive for helping women find mates if their children’s father was not in the picture Biopsychosocial theories: Exotic Becomes Erotic (Bem, 1996) Temperaments predispose us to gender conformity or nonconformity Those we see ourselves as different from are exotic Feelings of difference create arousal that later becomes erotic in nature Seems to explain male homosexuality better than female homosexuality Sexual fluidity (Diamond, 2008) Men’s sexuality is “hardwired,” women’s is category-specific Diamond found that some women appear to adapt their sexual & romantic attraction to specific persons instead of overall categories Biology creates predispositions that are affected by environmental factors Not clear why some women are fluid and others are not Sex differences in the expression of sexual orientation: Women have more erotic plasticity than men Baumeister (2000): reviewed evidence that women’s sexual behavior is more responsive to cultural and situational pressures Several more recent studies have found that heterosexual women tend to show bisexual patterns of attraction Suggests that sexual orientation might be organized differently in men’s and women’s brains Sexual orientation attitudes: Sexual prejudice: prejudice that stems from one’s actual or perceived sexuality Homophobia: negative attitudes toward gays and lesbians Heterosexism: assumption that everyone is heterosexual Biphobia: negative attitudes toward bisexuals Monosexism: belief that exclusive attraction to one sex is the norm Sexual prejudice is common, but attitudes vary cross-culturally Biphobia may be even more prevalent than homophobia Sexual prejudice may stem from religion, intergroup contact, fear of one’s own homosexuality, etc. Consequences of sexual prejudice include physical violence (hate crimes), discrimination, and chronic stress Sexual orientation and psychology: Until 1974, homosexuality was listed as a disorder in the DSM Evelyn Hooker’s (1957) research demonstrated that gay men are just as well-adjusted as heterosexual men Today, the APA encourages gay affirmative therapy Helping clients cope with stigma they may experience Sexual orientation myths: Male bisexuality does exist Bisexual men show strong genital arousal to both male and female erotic stimuli (Rosenthal et al., 2011) Gay partners must designate a “husband” and a “wife” Gay partners tend to share equal responsibility (Kurdek, 1998) Gay parents raise gay children No evidence that homosexuality is a learned behavior Homosexuality is correlated with pedophilia No evidence of this Gay men are more promiscuous Gay and heterosexual men have equally high sex drives, and their median number of partners is quite similar Bisexual people cannot be faithful Diamond (2008): most bisexual women in her study ended up in long-term, monogamous relationships Most people who have HIV are gay or bisexual men Worldwide, the vast majority of infections are among heterosexuals, and half of all infections are attributable to women Chapter 7: The Laws of Attraction What attracts us to other people?: A. Affective influences Positive affect leads us to evaluate others favorably; negative affect leads to disliking Consequently, “negging” is unlikely to be a particularly effective pick-up strategy Priming participants with pleasant or unpleasant stimuli affects liking for a stranger (Krosnick et al., 1992) B. Propinquity (proximity) The closer two people are physically, the more likely it is that an attraction will develop Attributable to the mere exposure effect Familiarity leads to liking Proximity may also suggest shared interests C. Similarity There is much evidence that humans engage in assortative mating (i.e., matching with similar partners) Selecting similar partners may bolster self-esteem by validating our own worldviews However, similarity is not a sufficient condition for relationship success, and not everyone is attracted to similar others In fact, interracial and interreligious marriages are on the rise D. Scarcity Lower availability increases perceptions of attractiveness Pennebaker et al. (1979): as closing time approaches, other patrons in a bar become more attractive Playing “hard to get” appears to increase desirability as a dating partner E. Physiological arousal If one is already physiologically aroused when meeting a new person, the odds of attraction increase Dutton and Aron (1974) shaky bridge study When there are potential competing sources of arousal, we may misattribute the source F. Neurochemical factors Pheromones may increase a partner’s desirability Dopamine and serotonin levels may facilitate or inhibit arousal and attraction Oxytocin may enhance attraction by creating a feeling of bondedness G. Physical attractiveness Judgments of attractiveness have a biopsychosocial basis Attractive people are desired because they are positively stereotyped Men tend to value attractiveness more than women (but women still care about looks) Attraction processes among gays and lesbians: There are many similarities among heterosexual and homosexual persons in attraction processes Notable differences: Similarity effect is not as strong Gay and lesbian couples more likely to be interracial and interreligious Propinquity may play a lesser role because many gays and lesbians are not “out” and are increasingly meeting online Why do men and women value different characteristics?: A. Evolutionary theory Humans have evolved preferences for certain characteristics that enhanced reproductive success for our ancestors Men and women evolved different preferences due to unequal parental investment Men’s best strategy is to have many short-term encounters with healthy & fertile women May explain modern heterosexual men’s emphasis on waist-to-hip ratio, age, and appearance Women’s best strategy is to pursue long-term relationships with reliable men May explain modern heterosexual women’s emphasis on status and resources Much supporting evidence: Clark & Hatfield (1989) Men were more willing than women to accept offers of casual sex Schmitt et al. (2003) Men desire more sexual variety B. Sociocultural theory Biological and evolved factors may play some role, but psychological sex differences are largely a product of the social structure In societies with more gender equality, sex differences in mate preferences are more similar (Zentner & Mitura, 2013) Conley (2011): men are not always more interested in casual sex than women Alexander & Fisher (2003): women reported different sexual histories when hooked up to a lie detector Critiques Suggests a mind–body dualism in arguing that psychological sex differences are not subject to evolutionary pressures Psychological sex differences do have at least some biological basis (e.g., consider women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia)