GMAT Reasoning Test 20.docx

GMAT Reasoning Test 20 No. 1990 1990 04 SECTION A Because of its accuracy in outlining the Earth’s subsurface, the seismic-reflection method remains the most important tool in the search for petroleum reserves (petroleum reserves: ????). In field practice, a subsurface is mapped by arranging a series of wave-train sources, such as small dynamite explosions, in a grid pattern. As each source is activated, it generates a wave train that moves downward at a speed determined uniquely by the rock’s elastic characteristics. As rock interfaces are crossed, the elastic characteristics encountered generally change abruptly, which causes part of the energy to be reflected back to the surface, where it is recorded by seismic instruments. The seismic records must be processed to correct for positional differences between the source and the receiver, for unrelated wave trains, and for multiple reflections from the rock interfaces. Then the data acquired at each of the specific source locations are combined to generate a physical profile of the subsurface, which can eventually be used to select targets for drilling. 17. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) describing an important technique (B) discussing a new method (C) investigating a controversial procedure (D) announcing a significant discovery?A? (E) promoting a novel application 18. According to the passage, in the seismic-reflection method all of the following have a significant effect on the signal detected by the seismic instruments EXCEPT the (A) presence of unrelated wave trains (B) placement of the seismic instruments (C) number of sources in the grid pattern (D) nature of the reflectivity of the rock interfaces?C? (E) properties of rocks through which the wave train has traveled 19. It can be inferred from the passage that the seismic-reflection method would be likely to yield an inaccurate physical profile of the subsurface in which of the following circumstances? (A) If the speed at which the wave train moved downward changed (B) If the receiver were not positioned directly at the wave-train source (C) If the rock on one side of a rock interface had similar elastic characteristics to those of the rock on the other side (D) If the seismic records obtained for the different sources in a grid were highly similar to each other?C? (E) If there were no petroleum deposits beneath the area defined by the grid of wave-train sources 20. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage? (A) A method is criticized, and an alternative is suggested. (B) An illustration is examined, and some errors are exposed. (C) An assertion is made, and a procedure is outlined. (D) A series of examples is presented, and a conclusion is drawn.?C? (E) A hypothesis is advanced, and supporting evidence is supplied. Modern archaeological finds can still contribute much to the study of ancient literature. For example, forty years ago a survey of the early Greek dramatist Aeschylus’ plays would have started with The Suppliant Women. Many factors internal to the play, but perhaps most especially the prominence of the chorus (which in this play has the main role), led scholars to consider it one of Aeschylus’ earlier works. The consensus was that here was a drama truly reflecting an early stage in the evolution of tragedy out of choral lyric. The play was dated as early as the 490’s B.C., in any event (in any event: ????), well before Aeschylus’ play The Persians of 472 B.C. Then, in 1952, a fragment of papyrus found at Oxyrhynchus was published stating the official circumstances and results of a dramatic contest. The fragment announced that Aeschylus won first prize with his Danaid tetralogy, of which The Suppliant Women is the opening play, and defeated Sophocles in the process. Sophocles did not compete in any dramatic contest before 468 B.C., when he won his first victory. Hence, except by special pleading (e. g., that the tetralogy was composed early in Aeschylus’ career but not produced until the 460’s B.C.), the Danaid tetralogy must be put after 468 B.C. In addition, a few letters in the fragment suggest the name Archedemides, archon in 463 B.C., thus perhaps tying the plays to that precise date, almost exactly halfway between Aeschylus’ Seven Against Thebes of 467 B.C. and his Oresteia. The implication of the papyrus administered a severe shock to the vast majority of classical scholars, who had confidently asserted that not only the role of the chorus but also language, metrics, and characterization all pointed to an early date. The discovery has resulted in no less than a total reevaluation of every chronological criterion that has been applied to or derived from Aeschylus’ plays. The activity has been brisk, and a new creed has now spread. The prominence of the chorus in The Suppliant Women now is seen not as a sign of primitivism but as analogous to the massive choral songs of the Oresteia. Statistics have been formulated, or reformulated, to show that stylistically The Suppliant Women does actually occupy a position after The Persians and Seven Against Thebes, which now become the “primitive” plays, and before the Oresteia. While the new doctrine seems almost certainly correct, the one papyrus fragment raises the specter that another may be unearthed, showing, for instance, that it was a posthumous production of the Danaid tetralogy which bested Sophocles, and throwing the date once more into utter confusion. This is unlikely to happen, but it warns us that perhaps the most salutary feature of the papyrus scrap is its message of the extreme difficulty of classifying and categorizing rigidly the development of a creative artist. 21. The author of the passage focuses primarily on (A) discussing a series of modern archaeological finds and their impact on the study of Greek literature (B) recounting the effect of one archaeological find on modern ideas concerning a particular author’s work (C) giving a definitive and coherent account of the chronology of a particular author’s work (D) illustrating the many varieties of difficulties involved in establishing facts concerning ancient literature?B? (E) determining the exact value of archaeological finds in relation to the history of ancient literature 22. With respect to the study of ancient literature, which of the following statements best expresses the author’s main point concerning modern archaeological finds? (A) They can profoundly alter accepted views of ancient literary works, and can encourage flexibility in the way scholars look at the creative development of any artist. (B) They can be severely shocking and can have a revivifying effect on the study of ancient literature, which has recently suffered from a lack of interest on the part of scholars. (C) They can raise more questions than they answer and can be unreliable sources of information. (D) They generally confirm scholars’ ideas about ancient literary works and allow them to dispense with inferences drawn from the works’ internal structure.?A? (E) They often undermine scholarly consensus in certain areas and create utter confusion concerning an author’s work. 23. According to the passage, in the absence of definite knowledge concerning the dates of composition of ancient literary works, literary historians do which of the following when trying to establish the chronology of an author’s work? (A) Make assumptions about a single work’s date of composition if such assumptions would not seriously affect interpretations of other works by the same author. (B) Draw inferences concerning the date of a work’s composition based on evidence internal to that work and on the author’s other works. (C) Ignore the date of a work’s composition which is supplied by archaeological research when literary factors internal to the work contradict that date. (D) Refrain from speculation concerning a work’s date of composition unless archaeological finds produce information concerning it.?B? (E) Estimate the date of a work’s composition without attempting to relate it to the author’s development as an artist. 24. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following plays or groups of plays is considered the latest in the date of its composition? (A) The Persians (B) The Danaid tetralogy (C) The Oresteia (D) Seven Against Thebes?C? (E) The Suppliant Women 25. With which of the following statements regarding the chronological criteria mentioned in line 33-34 would the author be most likely to agree? (A) Such criteria, whether applied to or derived from the plays, should only be used to confirm already existing knowledge. (B) Such criteria, although derived from reliable external and internal evidence, should be changed continually to avoid rigidity in thinking. (C) Such criteria, based on statistical analysis, are inherently more reliable than those of forty years ago. (D) Such criteria, even when unsupported by external evidence, can resolve most questions.?E? (E) Such criteria, based on often ambiguous internal evidence, can lead to erroneous reconstructions of the chronology of an author’s work. 26. The author’s attitude toward the “activity” mentioned in line 35 and its consequences can best be described as one of (A) amused tolerance (B) mocking envy (C) grave doubt (D) angry disapproval?A? (E) unrestrained enthusiasm 27. The allusion to the hypothetical papyrus fragment in line 45-49 does which of the following? (A) Supports an argument concerning the date of The Suppliant Women. (B) Refutes the views of the majority of scholars concerning the Oxyrhynchus papyrus find. (C) Predicts the future results of archaeological research proposed in the passage. (D) Undermines the validity of the currently accepted chronology of Aeschylus’ works.?E? (E) Qualifies (To modify, limit, or restrict, as by giving exceptions.) the author’s agreement with the “new creed” developed since the Oxyrhynchus papyrus find. SECTION B Scholars often fail to see that music played an important role in the preservation of African culture in the United States. They correctly note that slavery stripped some cultural elements from Black people—their political and economic systems—but they underestimate the significance of music in sustaining other African cultural values. African music, unlike the music of some other cultures, was based on a total vision of life in which music was not an isolated social domain. In African culture music was pervasive, serving not only religion, but all phases of life, including birth, death, work, and play. The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential. Music, like art in general, was so inextricably a part of African culture that it became a crucial means of preserving the culture during and after the dislocations of slavery. 17. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) analyze the impact that slavery had on African political and economic systems (B) review the attempt of recent scholarship to study the influence of African music on other music (C) correct the failure of some scholars to appreciate the significance of music in African culture (D) survey the ways by which people attempt to preserve their culture against the effects of oppression?C? (E) compare the relative importance of music with that of other art forms in culture 18. In line 9, the phrase “isolated social domain” refers to (A) African music in relation to contemporary culture as a whole (B) music as it may be perceived in non-African cultures (C) a feature of African music that aided in transmitting African cultural values (D) an aspect of the African cultural legacy?B? (E) the influence of music on contemporary culture 19. Which of the following statements concerning the function of African music can be inferred from the passage? (A) It preserved cultural values because it was thoroughly integrated into the lives of the people. (B) It was more important in the development of African religious life than in other areas of culture. (C) It was developed in response to the loss of political and economic systems. (D) Its pervasiveness in African culture hindered its effectiveness in minimizing the impact of slavery.?A? (E) Its isolation from the economic domains of life enabled it to survive the destructive impact of slavery. 20. According to the author, scholars would err in (err in: v.???, ??) drawing which of the following conclusions? I. Slavery stripped the slaves of their political and economic systems. II. African music was similar to all other traditions of music in that it originated in a total vision of life. III. Music was a crucial part of the African cultural legacy. (A) I only (B) II only (C) I and II only (D) II and III only?B? (E) I, II, and III Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries (vagary: an erratic, unpredictable, or extravagant manifestation, action, or notion) of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used. Because the potential hazards pollen grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous, wind-pollinated plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects. However, a number of features that are characteristic of wind-pollinated plants reduce pollen waste. For example, many wind-pollinated species fail to release pollen when wind speeds are low or when humid conditions prevail. Recent studies suggest another way in which species compensate for the inefficiency of wind pollination. These studies suggest that species frequently take advantage of (take advantage of: v.??) the physics of pollen motion by generating specific aerodynamic environments within the immediate vicinity of their female reproductive organs. It is the morphology of these organs that dictates the pattern of airflow disturbances through which pollen must travel. The speed and direction of the airflow disturbances can combine with the physical properties of a species’ pollen to produce a species-specific pattern of pollen collision on the surfaces of female reproductive organs. Provided that these surfaces are strategically located, the consequences of this combination can significantly increase the pollen-capture efficiency of a female reproductive organ (reproductive organ: ???). A critical question that remains to be answered is whether the morphological attributes of the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated species are evolutionary adaptations to wind pollination or are merely fortuitous. A complete resolution of the question is as yet impossible since adaptation must be evaluated for each species within its own unique functional context. However, it must be said that, while evidence of such evolutionary adaptations does exist in some species, one must be careful about attributing morphology to adaptation. For example, the spiral arrangement of scale-bract complexes on ovule-bearing pine cones, where the female reproductive organs of conifers are located, is important to the production of airflow patterns that spiral over the cone’s surfaces, thereby passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next. However, these patterns cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind pollination because the spiral arrangement occurs in a number of non-wind-pollinated plant lineages and is regarded as a characteristic of vascular plants, of which conifers are only one kind, as a whole. Therefore, the spiral arrangement is not likely to be the result of a direct adaptation to wind pollination. 21. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) the current debate on whether the morphological attributes of wind-pollinated plants are evolutionary adaptations (B) the kinds of airflow patterns that permit wind-pollinated plants to capture pollen most efficiently (C) the ways in which the reproductive processes of wind-pollinated plants are controlled by random events (D) a recently proposed explanation of a way in which wind-pollinated plants reduce pollen waste?D? (E) a specific morphological attribute that permits one species of wind-pollinated plant to capture pollen 22. The author suggests that explanations of wind pollination that emphasize the production of vast quantities of pollen to compensate for the randomness of the pollination process are (A) debatable and misleading (B) ingenious and convincing (C) accurate but incomplete (D) intriguing but controversial?C? (E) plausible but unverifiable 23. According to the passage, the “aerodynamic environments” mentioned in line 23, when they are produced, are primarily determined by the (A) presence of insects near the plant (B) physical properties of the plant’s pollen (C) shape of the plant’s female reproductive organs (D) amount of pollen generated by the plant?C? (E) number of seeds produced by the plant 24. According to the passage, true statements about the release of pollen by wind-pollinated plants include which of the following? I. The release can be affected by certain environmental factors. II. The amount of pollen released increases on a rainy day. III. Pollen is sometimes not released by plants when there is little wind. (A) II only (B) III only (C) I and II only (D) I and III only?D? (E) I, II, and III 25. The passage suggests that the recent studies cited in lines 19-21 have not done which of the following? (A) Made any distinctions between different species of wind-pollinated plants. (B) Considered the physical properties of the pollen that is produced by wind-pollinated plants. (C) Indicated the general range within which plant-generated airflow disturbances are apt to occur. (D) Included investigations of the physics of pollen motion and its relationship to the efficient capture of pollen by the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated plants.?E? (E) Demonstrated that the morphological attributes of the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated plants are usually evolutionary adaptations to wind pollination. 26. It can be inferred from the passage that the claim that the spiral arrangement of scale-bract complexes on an ovule-bearing pine cone is an adaptation to wind pollination would be more convincing if which of the following were true? (A) Such an arrangement occurred only in wind-pollinated plants. (B) Such an arrangement occurred in vascular plants as a whole. (C) Such an arrangement could be shown to be beneficial to pollen release. (D) The number of bracts could be shown to have increased over time.?A? (E) The airflow patterns over the cone’s surfaces could be shown to be produced by such arrangements. 27. Which of the following, if known, is likely to have been the kind of evidence used to support the view described in the first paragraph? (A) Wind speeds need not be very low for wind-pollinated plants to fail to release pollen. (B) The female reproductive organs of plants often have a sticky surface that allows them to trap airborne pollen systematically. (C) Grasses, as well as conifers, generate specific aerodynamic environments within the immediate vicinity of their reproductive organs. (D) Rain showers often wash airborne pollen out of the air before it ever reaches an appropriate plant.?D? (E) The density and size of an airborne pollen grain are of equal importance in determining whether that grain will be captured by a plant. 1990 10 SECTION A It has been known for many decades that the appearance of sunspots is roughly periodic, with an average cycle of eleven years. Moreover, the incidence of solar flares and the flux of solar cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiation, and x-radiation all vary directly with the sunspot cycle (sunspot cycle: ????, ??????). But after more than a century of investigation, the relation of these and other phenomena, known collectively as the solar-activity cycle, to terrestrial weather and climate remains unclear. For example, the sunspot cycle and the allied magnetic-polarity cycle have been linked to periodicities discerned in records of such variables as rainfall, temperature, and winds. Invariably, however, the relation is weak, and commonly of dubious statistical significance. Effects of solar variability over longer terms have also been sought. The absence of recorded sunspot activity in the notes kept by European observers in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries has led some scholars to postulate a brief cessation of sunspot activity at that time (a period called the Maunder minimum (Maunder minimum: [?]?????)). The Maunder minimum has been linked to a span of unusual cold in Europe extending from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries. The reality of the Maunder minimum has yet to be established, however, especially since the records that Chinese naked-eye observers of solar activity made at that time appear to contradict it. Scientists have also sought evidence of long-term solar periodicities by examining indirect climatological data, such as fossil records of the thickness of ancient tree rings. These studies, however, failed to link unequivocally terrestrial climate and the solar-activity cycle, or even to confirm the cycle’s past existence. If consistent and reliable geological or archaeological evidence tracing the solar-activity cycle in the distant past could be found, it might also resolve an important issue in solar physics: how to model solar activity. Currently, there are two models of solar activity. The first supposes that the Sun’s internal motions (caused by rotation and convection) interact with its large-scale magnetic field to produce a dynamo, a device in which mechanical energy is converted into the energy of a magnetic field. In short, the Sun’s large-scale magnetic field is taken to be self-sustaining, so that the solar-activity cycle it drives would be maintained with little overall change for perhaps billions of years. The alternative explanation supposes that the Sun’s large-scale magnetic field is a remnant of the field the Sun acquired when it formed, and is not sustained against decay. In this model, the solar mechanism dependent on the Sun’s magnetic field runs down more quickly. Thus, the characteristics of the solar-activity cycle could be expected to change over a long period of time. Modern solar observations span too short a time to reveal whether present cyclical solar activity is a long-lived feature of the Sun, or merely a transient phenomenon. 17. The author focuses primarily on (A) presenting two competing scientific theories concerning solar activity and evaluating geological evidence often cited to support them (B) giving a brief overview of some recent scientific developments in solar physics and assessing their impact on future climatological research (C) discussing the difficulties involved in linking terrestrial phenomena with solar activity and indicating how resolving that issue could have an impact on our understanding of solar physics (solar physics: ????) (D) pointing out the futility of a certain line of scientific inquiry into the terrestrial effects of solar activity and recommending its abandonment in favor of purely physics-oriented research?C? (E) outlining the specific reasons why a problem in solar physics has not yet been solved and faulting the overly theoretical approach of modern physicists 18. Which of the following statements about the two models of solar activity, as they are described in lines 37-55, is accurate? (A) In both models cyclical solar activity is regarded as a long-lived feature of the Sun, persisting with little change over billions of years. (B) In both models the solar-activity cycle is hypothesized as being dependent on the large-scale solar magnetic field. (C) In one model the Sun’s magnetic field is thought to play a role in causing solar activity, whereas in the other model it is not. (D) In one model solar activity is presumed to be unrelated to terrestrial phenomena, whereas in the other model solar activity is thought to have observable effects on the Earth.?B? (E) In one model cycles of solar activity with periodicities longer than a few decades are considered to be impossible, whereas in the other model such cycles are predicted. 19. According to the passage, late seventeenth and early eighteenth-century Chinese records are important for which of the following reasons? (A) They suggest that the data on which the Maunder minimum was predicated were incorrect. (B) They suggest that the Maunder minimum cannot be related to climate. (C) They suggest that the Maunder minimum might be valid only for Europe. (D) They establish the existence of a span of unusually cold weather worldwide at the time of the Maunder minimum.?A? (E) They establish that solar activity at the time of the Maunder minimum did not significantly vary from its present pattern. 20. The author implies which of the following about currently available geological and archaeological evidence concerning the solar-activity cycle? (A) It best supports the model of solar activity described in lines 37-45. (B) It best supports the model of solar activity described in lines 45-52. (C) It is insufficient to confirm either model of solar activity described in the third paragraph. (D) It contradicts both models of solar activity as they are presented in the third paragraph.?C? (E) It disproves the theory that terrestrial weather and solar activity are linked in some way. 21. It can be inferred from the passage that the argument in favor of the model described in lines 37-45 would be strengthened if which of the following were found to be true? (A) Episodes of intense volcanic eruptions in the distant past occurred in cycles having very long periodicities. (B) At the present time the global level of thunderstorm activity increases and decreases in cycles with periodicities of approximately 11 years. (C) In the distant past cyclical climatic changes had periodicities of longer than 200 years. (D) In the last century the length of the sunspot cycle has been known to vary by as much as 2 years from its average periodicity of 11 years.?E? (E) Hundreds of millions of years ago, solar-activity cycles displayed the same periodicities as do present-day solar-activity cycles. 22. It can be inferred from the passage that Chinese observations of the Sun during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries (A) are ambiguous because most sunspots cannot be seen with the naked eye (B) probably were made under the same weather conditions as those made in Europe (C) are more reliable than European observations made during this period (D) record some sunspot activity during this period?D? (E) have been employed by scientists seeking to argue that a change in solar activity occurred during this period 23. It can be inferred from the passage that studies attempting to use tree-ring thickness to locate possible links between solar periodicity and terrestrial climate are based on which of the following assumptions? (A) The solar-activity cycle existed in its present form during the time period in which the tree rings grew. (B) The biological mechanisms causing tree growth are unaffected by short-term weather patterns. (C) Average tree-ring thickness varies from species to species. (D) Tree-ring thicknesses reflect changes in terrestrial climate.?D? (E) Both terrestrial climate and the solar-activity cycle randomly affect tree-ring thickness. The common belief of some linguists that each language is a perfect vehicle for the thoughts of the nation speaking it is in some ways the exact counterpart of the conviction of the Manchester school of economics that supply and demand will regulate everything for the best. Just as economists were blind to the numerous cases in which the law of supply and demand left actual wants unsatisfied, so also many linguists are deaf to those instances in which the very nature of a language calls forth (call forth: v.???, ??) misunderstandings in everyday conversation, and in which, consequently, a word has to be modified or defined in order to present the idea intended by the speaker: “He took his stick—no, not John’s, but his own.” No language is perfect, and if we admit this truth, we must also admit that it is not unreasonable to investigate the relative merits of different languages or of different details in languages. 24. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) analyze an interesting feature of the English language (B) refute a belief held by some linguists (C) show that economic theory is relevant to linguistic study (D) illustrate the confusion that can result from the improper use of language?B? (E) suggest a way in which languages can be made more nearly perfect 25. The misunderstanding presented by the author in lines 13-14 is similar to which of the following? I. X uses the word “you” to refer to a group, but Y thinks that X is referring to one person only. II. X mistakenly uses the word “anomaly” to refer to a typical example, but Y knows that “anomaly” means “exception.” III. X uses the word “bachelor” to mean “unmarried man,” but Y mistakenly thinks that bachelor means “unmarried woman.” (A) I only (B) II only (C) III only (D) I and II only?A? (E) II and III only 26. In presenting the argument, the author does all of the following EXCEPT: (A) give an example (B) draw a conclusion (C) make a generalization (D) make a comparison?E? (E) present a paradox 27. Which of the following contributes to the misunderstanding described by the author in lines 13-14? (A) It is unclear whom the speaker of the sentence is addressing. (B) It is unclear to whom the word “his” refers the first time it is used. (C) It is unclear to whom the word “his” refers the second time it is used. (D) The meaning of “took” is ambiguous.?B? (E) It is unclear to whom “He” refers. SECTION B It is frequently assumed that the mechanization of work has a revolutionary effect on the lives of the people who operate the new machines and on the society into which the machines have been introduced. For example, it has been suggested that the employment of women in industry took them out of the household, their traditional sphere, and fundamentally altered their position in society. In the nineteenth century, when women began to enter factories, Jules Simon, a French politician, warned that by doing so, women would give up their femininity. Friedrich Engels, however, predicted that women would be liberated from the “social, legal, and economic subordination” of the family by technological developments that made possible the recruitment of “the whole female sex into public industry.” Observers thus differed concerning the social desirability of mechanization’s effects, but they agreed that it would transform women’s lives. Historians, particularly those investigating the history of women, now seriously question this assumption of transforming power. They conclude that such dramatic technological innovations as the spinning jenny (spinning jenny: n.?????), the sewing machine, the typewriter, and the vacuum cleaner have not resulted in equally dramatic social changes in women’s economic position or in the prevailing evaluation of women’s work. The employment of young women in textile mills during the Industrial Revolution was largely an extension of an older pattern of employment of young, single women as domestics (domestic: a household servant). It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880’s created a new class of “dead-end” jobs, thenceforth considered “women’s work.” The increase in the numbers of married women employed outside the home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechanization of housework and an increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shrank the available pool of single women workers, previously, in many cases, the only women employers would hire. Women’s work has changed considerably in the past 200 years, moving from the household to the office or the factory, and later becoming mostly white-collar instead of blue-collar work. Fundamentally, however, the conditions under which women work have changed little since before the Industrial Revolution: the segregation of occupations by gender, lower pay for women as a group, jobs that require relatively low levels of skill and offer women little opportunity for advancement all persist, while women’s household labor remains demanding. Recent historical investigation has led to a major revision of the notion that technology is always inherently revolutionary in its effects on society. Mechanization may even have slowed any change in the traditional position of women both in the labor market and in the home. 17. Which of the following statements best summarizes the main idea of the passage? (A) The effects of the mechanization of women’s work have not borne out the frequently held assumption that new technology is inherently revolutionary. (B) Recent studies have shown that mechanization revolutionizes a society’s traditional values and the customary roles of its members. (C) Mechanization has caused the nature of women’s work to change since the Industrial Revolution. (D) The mechanization of work creates whole new classes of jobs that did not previously exist.?A? (E) The mechanization of women’s work, while extremely revolutionary it its effects, has not, on the whole, had the deleterious effects that some critics had feared. 18. The author mentions all of the following inventions as examples of dramatic technological innovations EXCEPT the (A) sewing machine (B) vacuum cleaner (C) typewriter (D) telephone?D? (E) spinning jenny 19. It can be inferred from the passage that, before the Industrial Revolution, the majority of women’s work was done in which of the following settings? (A) Textile mills (B) Private households (C) Offices (D) Factories?B? (E) Small shops 20. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would consider which of the following to be an indication of a fundamental alteration in the conditions of women’s work? (A) Statistics showing that the majority of women now occupy white-collar positions (B) Interviews with married men indicating that they are now doing some household tasks (C) Surveys of the labor market documenting the recent creation of a new class of jobs in electronics in which women workers outnumber men four to one (D) Census results showing that working women’s wages and salaries are, on the average, as high as those of working men?D? (E) Enrollment figures from universities demonstrating that increasing numbers of young women are choosing to continue their education beyond the undergraduate level 21. The passage states that, before the twentieth century, which of the following was true of many employers? (A) They did not employ women in factories. (B) They tended to employ single rather than married women. (C) They employed women in only those jobs that were related to women’s traditional household work. (D) They resisted technological innovations that would radically change women’s roles in the family.?B? (E) They hired women only when qualified men were not available to fill the open positions. 22. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably believes which of the following to be true concerning those historians who study the history of women? (A) Their work provides insights important to those examining social phenomena affecting the lives of both sexes. (B) Their work can only be used cautiously by scholars in other disciplines. (C) Because they concentrate only on the role of women in the workplace, they draw more reliable conclusions than do other historians. (D) While highly interesting, their work has not had an impact on most historians’ current assumptions concerning the revolutionary effect of technology in the workplace.?A? (E) They oppose the further mechanization of work, which, according to their findings, tends to perpetuate existing inequalities in society. 23. Which of the following best describes the function of the concluding sentence of the passage? (A) It sums up the general points concerning the mechanization of work made in the passage as a whole. (B) It draws a conclusion concerning the effects of the mechanization of work which goes beyond the evidence presented in the passage as a whole. (C) It restates the point concerning technology made in the sentence immediately preceding it. (D) It qualifies the author’s agreement with scholars who argue for a major revision in the assessment of the impact of mechanization on society.?B? (E) It suggests a compromise between two seemingly contradictory views concerning the effects of mechanization on society. (This passage is excerpted from an article that was published in 1982.) Warm-blooded animals have elaborate physiological controls to maintain constant body temperature (in humans, 37?). Why then during sickness should temperature rise, apparently increasing stress on the infected organism? It has long been known that the level of serum iron in animals falls during infection. Garibaldi first suggested a relationship between fever and iron. He found that microbial synthesis of siderophores (siderophore: ????)—substances that bind iron—in bacteria of the genus Salmonella declined at environmental temperatures above 37? and stopped at 40.3?. Thus, fever would make it more difficult for an infecting bacterium to acquire iron and thus to multiply. Cold-blooded animals were used to test this hypothesis because their body temperature can be controlled in the laboratory. Kluger reported that of iguanas infected with the potentially lethal bacterium A. hydrophilia, more survived at temperatures of 42? than at 37?, even though healthy animals prefer the lower temperature. When animals at 42? were injected with an iron solution, however, mortality rates increased significantly. Research to determine whether similar phenomena occur in warm-blooded animals is sorely needed. 24. The passage is primarily concerned with attempts to determine (A) the role of siderophores in the synthesis of serum iron (B) new treatments for infections that are caused by A. hydrophilia (C) the function of fever in warm-blooded animals (D) the mechanisms that ensure constant body temperature?C? (E) iron utilization in cold-blooded animals 25. According to the passage, Garibaldi determined which of the following? (A) That serum iron is produced through microbial synthesis. (B) That microbial synthesis of siderophores in warm-blooded animals is more efficient at higher temperatures. (C) That only iron bound to other substances can be used by bacteria. (D) That there is a relationship between the synthesis of siderophores in bacteria of the genus Salmonella and environmental temperature.?D? (E) That bacteria of the genus Salmonella require iron as a nutrient. 26. Which of the following can be inferred about warm-blooded animals solely on the basis of information in the passage? (A) The body temperatures of warm-blooded animals cannot be easily controlled in the laboratory. (B) Warm-blooded animals require more iron in periods of stress than they do at other times. (C) Warm-blooded animals are more comfortable at an environmental temperature of 37? than they are at a temperature of 42?. (D) In warm-blooded animals, bacteria are responsible for the production of siderophores, which, in turn, make iron available to the animal.?A? (E) In warm-blooded animals, infections that lead to fever are usually traceable to bacteria. 27. If it were to be determined that “similar phenomena occur in warm-blooded animals” (lines 21-22), which of the following, assuming each is possible, is likely to be the most effective treatment for warm-blooded animals with bacterial infections? (A) Administering a medication that lowers the animals’ body temperature (B) Injecting the animals with an iron solution (C) Administering a medication that makes serum iron unavailable to bacteria (D) Providing the animals with reduced-iron diets?C? (E) Keeping the animals in an environment with temperatures higher than 37? 1991 02 SECTION A As Gilbert White, Darwin, and others observed long ago, all species appear to have the innate capacity to increase their numbers from generation to generation. The task for ecologists is to untangle the environmental and biological factors that hold this intrinsic capacity for population growth in check over the long run. The great variety of dynamic behaviors exhibited by different populations makes this task more difficult: some populations remain roughly constant from year to year (from year to year: adv.??); others exhibit regular cycles of abundance and scarcity; still others vary wildly, with outbreaks and crashes that are in some cases plainly correlated with the weather, and in other cases not. To impose some order on this kaleidoscope of patterns, one school of thought proposes dividing populations into two groups. These ecologists posit that the relatively steady populations have “density-dependent” growth parameters; that is, rates of birth, death, and migration which depend strongly on population density. The highly varying populations have “density-independent” growth parameters, with vital rates buffeted by environmental events; these rates fluctuate in a way that is wholly independent of population density. This dichotomy has its uses, but it can cause problems if taken too literally. For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors all the time. No matter how severely or unpredictably birth, death and migration rates may be fluctuating around their long-term averages, if there were no density-dependent effects, the population would, in the long run, either increase or decrease without bound (barring a miracle by which gains and losses canceled exactly). Put another way, it may be that on average 99 percent of all deaths in a population arise from density-independent causes, and only one percent from factors varying with density. The factors making up the one percent may seem unimportant, and their cause may be correspondingly hard to determine. Yet, whether recognized or not, they will usually determine the long-term average population density. In order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation, we may think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the “signal” ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce “noise” in the population dynamics (population dynamics: ????;????). For populations that remain relatively constant, or that oscillate around repeated cycles, the signal can be fairly easily characterized and its effects described, even though the causative biological mechanism may remain unknown. For irregularly fluctuating populations, we are likely to have too few observations to have any hope of extracting the signal from the overwhelming noise. But it now seems clear that all populations are regulated by a mixture of density-dependent and density-independent effects in varying proportions. 17. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) discussing two categories of factors that control population growth and assessing their relative importance (B) describing how growth rates in natural populations fluctuate over time and explaining why these changes occur (C) proposing a hypothesis concerning population sizes and suggesting ways to test it (D) posing a fundamental question about environmental factors in population growth and presenting some currently accepted answers?A? (E) refuting a commonly accepted theory about population density and offering a new alternative 18. It can be inferred from the passage that the author considers the dichotomy discussed in the second paragraph to be (A) applicable only to erratically fluctuating populations (B) useful, but only if its limitations are recognized (C) dangerously misleading in most circumstances (D) a complete and sufficient way to account for observed phenomena?B? (E) conceptually valid, but too confusing to apply on a practical basis 19. Which of the following statements can be inferred from the last paragraph? (A) For irregularly fluctuating populations, doubling the number of observations made will probably result in the isolation of density-dependent effects. (B) Density-dependent effects on population dynamics do not occur as frequently as do density-independent effects. (C) At present, ecologists do not understand any of the underlying causes of the density-dependent effects they observe in population dynamics. (D) Density-dependent effects on growth parameters are thought to be caused by some sort of biochemical “signaling” that ecologists hope eventually to understand.?E? (E) It is sometimes possible to infer the existence of a density-dependent factor controlling population growth without understanding its causative mechanism. 20. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about density-dependent factors in population growth? (A) They ultimately account for long-term population levels. (B) They have little to do with long-term population dynamics. (C) They are always more easily isolated and described than those that are density-independent. (D) They include random environmental events.?A? (E) They contradict current ecological assumptions about population dynamics. 21. According to the passage, all of the following behaviors have been exhibited by different populations EXCEPT: (A) roughly constant population levels from year to year (B) regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers (C) erratic increases in numbers correlated with the weather (D) unchecked increases in numbers over many generations?D? (E) sudden declines in numbers from time to time 22. The discussion concerning population in lines 24-40 serves primarily to (A) demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density-dependent factors limiting population growth (B) advocate more rigorous study of density-dependent factors in population growth (C) prove that the death rates of any population are never entirely density-independent (D) give an example of how death rates function to limit population densities in typical populations?E? (E) underline the importance of even small density-dependent factors in regulating long-term population densities 23. In the passage, the author does all of the following EXCEPT: (A) cite the views of other biologists (B) define a basic problem that the passage addresses (C) present conceptual categories used by other biologists (D) describe the results of a particular study?D? (E) draw a conclusion In Raisin in the Sun, Lorraine Hansberry does not reject integration or the economic and moral promise of the American dream; rather, she remains loyal to this dream while looking, realistically, at its incomplete realization. Once we recognize this dual vision, we can accept the play’s ironic nuances as deliberate social commentaries by Hansberry rather than as the “unintentional” irony that Bigsby attributes to the work. Indeed a curiously persistent refusal to credit Hansberry with a capacity for intentional irony has led some critics to interpret the play’s thematic conflicts as mere confusion, contradiction, or eclecticism. Isaacs, for example, cannot easily reconcile Hansberry’s intense concern for her race with her ideal of human reconciliation. But the play’s complex view of Black self-esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more “contradictory” than Du Bois’ famous, well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with human unity, or Fanon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also accommodates national identities and roles. 24. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to (A) explain some critics’ refusal to consider Raisin in the Sun a deliberately ironic play (B) suggest that ironic nuances ally Raisin in the Sun with Du Bois’ and Fanon’s writings (C) analyze the fundamental dramatic conflicts in Raisin in the Sun (D) justify the inclusion of contradictory elements in Raisin in the Sun?E? (E) affirm the thematic coherence underlying Raisin in the Sun 25. It can be inferred from the passage that the author believes which of the following about Hansberry’s use of irony in Raisin in the Sun? (A) It derives from Hansberry’s eclectic approach to dramatic structure. (B) It is justified by Hansberry’s loyalty to a favorable depiction of American life. (C) It is influenced by the themes of works by Du Bois and Fanon. (D) It is more consistent with Hansberry’s concern for Black Americans than with her ideal of human reconciliation.?E? (E) It reflects Hansberry’s reservations about the extent to which the American dream has been realized. 26. In which of the following does the author of the passage reinforce his criticism of responses such as Isaacs’ to Raisin in the Sun? (A) The statement that Hansberry is “loyal” (line 3) to the American dream (B) The description of Hansberry’s concern for Black Americans as “intense” (line 13) (C) The assertion that Hansberry is concerned with “human solidarity” (line 15) (D) The description of Du Bois’ ideal as “well-considered” (line 17)?D? (E) The description of Fanon’s internationalism as “ideal” (line 19) 27. The author of the passage would probably consider which of the following judgments to be most similar to the reasoning of critics described in lines 8-12? (A) The world is certainly flat; therefore, the person proposing to sail around it is unquestionably foolhardy. (B) Radioactivity cannot be directly perceived; therefore, a scientist could not possibly control it in a laboratory. (C) The painter of this picture could not intend it to be funny, therefore, its humor must result from a lack of skill. (D) Traditional social mores are beneficial to culture; therefore, anyone who deviates from them acts destructively.?C? (E) Filmmakers who produce documentaries deal exclusively with facts; therefore, a filmmaker who reinterprets particular events is misleading us. SECTION B Some recent historians have argued that life in the British colonies in America from approximately 1763 to 1789 was marked by internal conflicts among colonists. Inheritors of some of the viewpoints of early twentieth-century Progressive historians such as Beard and Becker, these recent historians have put forward arguments that deserve evaluation. The kind of conflict most emphasized by these historians is class conflict. Yet with the Revolutionary War dominating these years, how does one distinguish class conflict within that larger conflict? Certainly not by the side a person supported. Although many of these historians have accepted the earlier assumption that Loyalists represented an upper class, new evidence indicates that Loyalists, like rebels, were drawn from all socioeconomic classes. (It is nonetheless probably true that a larger percentage of the well-to-do joined the Loyalists than joined the rebels.) Looking at the rebel side, we find little evidence for the contention that lower-class rebels were in conflict with upper-class rebels. Indeed, the war effort against Britain tended to suppress class conflicts. Where it did not, the disputing rebels of one or another class usually became Loyalists. Loyalism thus operated as a safety valve to remove socioeconomic discontent that existed among the rebels. Disputes occurred, of course, among those who remained on the rebel side, but the extraordinary social mobility of eighteenth-century American society (with the obvious exception of slaves) usually prevented such disputes from hardening along class lines. Social structure was in fact so fluid—though recent statistics suggest a narrowing of economic opportunity as the latter half of the century progressed—that to talk about social classes at all requires the use of loose economic categories such as rich, poor, and middle class, or eighteenth-century designations like “the better sort.” Despite these vague categories, one should not claim unequivocally that hostility between recognizable classes cannot be legitimately observed. Outside of New York, however, there were very few instances of openly expressed class antagonism. Having said this, however, one must add that there is much evidence to support the further claim of recent historians that sectional conflicts were common between 1763 and 1789. The “Paxton Boys” incident and the Regulator movement are representative examples of the widespread, and justified, discontent of western settlers against colonial or state governments dominated by eastern interests. Although undertones of class conflict existed beneath such hostility, the opposition was primarily geographical. Sectional conflict—which also existed between North and South—deserves further investigation. In summary, historians must be careful about the kind of conflict they emphasize in eighteenth-century America. Yet those who stress the achievement of a general consensus among the colonists cannot fully understand that consensus without understanding the conflicts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reach it. 17. The author considers the contentions made by the recent historians discussed in the passage to be (A) potentially verifiable (B) partially justified (C) logically contradictory (D) ingenious but flawed?B? (E) capricious and unsupported 18. The author most likely refers to “historians such as Beard and Becker” (lines 5-6) in order to (A) isolate the two historians whose work is most representative of the viewpoints of Progressive historians (B) emphasize the need to find connections between recent historical writing and the work of earlier historians (C) make a case for the importance of the views of the Progressive historians concerning eighteenth-century American life (D) suggest that Progressive historians were the first to discover the particular internal conflicts in eighteenth-century American life mentioned in the passage?E? (E) point out historians whose views of history anticipated some of the views of the recent historians mentioned in the passage 19. According to the passage, Loyalism during the American Revolutionary War served the function of (A) eliminating the disputes that existed among those colonists who supported the rebel cause (B) drawing upper, as opposed to lower, socioeconomic classes away from the rebel cause (C) tolerating the kinds of socioeconomic discontent that were not allowed to exist on the rebel side (D) channeling conflict that existed within a socioeconomic class into the war effort against the rebel cause?E? (E) absorbing members of socioeconomic groups on the rebel side who felt themselves in contention with members of other socioeconomic groups 20. The passage suggests that the author would be likely to agree with which of the following statements about the social structure of eighteenth-century American society? I. It allowed greater economic opportunity than it did social mobility. II. It permitted greater economic opportunity prior to 1750 than after 1750. III. It did not contain rigidly defined socioeconomic divisions. IV. It prevented economic disputes from arising among members of the society. (A) I and IV only (B) II and III only (C) III and IV only (D) I, II, and III only?B? (E) I, II, III, and IV 21. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements regarding socioeconomic class and support for the rebel and Loyalist causes during the American Revolutionary War? (A) Identifying a person’s socioeconomic class is the least accurate method of ascertaining which side that person supported. (B) Identifying a person as a member of the rebel or of the Loyalist side does not necessarily reveal that person’s particular socioeconomic class. (C) Both the rebel and the Loyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic classes, although there were fewer disputes among socioeconomic classes on the Loyalist side. (D) Both the rebel and the Loyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic classes, although the Loyalist side was made up primarily of members of the upper classes.?B? (E) Both the rebel and the Loyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic classes, although many upper-class rebels eventually joined the Loyalists. 22. The author suggests which of the following about the representativeness of colonial or state governments in America from 1763 to 1789? (A) The governments inadequately represented the interests of people in western regions. (B) The governments more often represented class interests than sectional interests. (C) The governments were less representative than they had been before 1763. (D) The governments were dominated by the interests of people of an upper socioeconomic class.?A? (E) The governments of the northern colonies were less representative than were the governments of the southern colonies. 23. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about sectional conflicts in America between 1763 and 1789? (A) These conflicts were instigated by eastern interests against western settlers. (B) These conflicts were the most serious kind of conflict in America. (C) The conflicts eventually led to openly expressed class antagonism. (D) These conflicts contained an element of class hostility.?D? (E) These conflicts were motivated by class conflicts. Since 1953, many experimental attempts to synthesize the chemical constituents of life under “primitive Earth conditions” have been performed, but none of these experiments has produced anything approaching the complexity of the simplest organism. They have demonstrated, however, that a variety of (a variety of: adj.???) the complex molecules currently making up living organisms could have been present in the early ocean and atmosphere, with only one limitation: such molecules are synthesized far less readily when oxygen-containing compounds dominate the atmosphere. Therefore some scientists postulate (to assume or claim as true, existent, or necessary: depend upon or start from the postulate of) that the Earth’s earliest atmosphere, unlike that of today, was dominated by hydrogen, methane, and ammonia. From these studies, scientists have concluded that the surface of the primitive Earth was covered with oceans containing the molecules fundamental to life. Although, at present, scientists cannot explain how these relatively small molecules combined to produce larger, more complex molecules, some scientists have precipitously ventured hypotheses that attempt to explain the development, from lager molecules, of the earliest self-duplicating organisms. 24. According to the passage, which of the following can be inferred about the process by which the chemical constituents of life were synthesized under primitive Earth conditions? (A) The synthesis is unlikely to occur under current atmospheric conditions. (B) The synthesis is common in modern laboratories. (C) The synthesis occurs more readily in the atmosphere than in the ocean. (D) The synthesis easily produces the most complex organic molecules.?A? (E) The synthesis is accelerated by the presence of oxygen-containing compounds. 25. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) point out that theories about how life developed on Earth have changed little since 1953 (B) warn of increasing levels of hydrogen, methane, and ammonia in the Earth’s atmosphere (C) describe the development since 1953 of some scientists’ understanding of how life began on Earth (D) demonstrate that the synthesis of life in the laboratory is too difficult for modern technology?C? (E) describe how primitive atmospheric conditions produced the complex molecules of living organisms 26. It can be inferred from the passage that “some scientists” assume which of the following concerning “larger, more complex molecules” (line 20)? (A) The earliest atmosphere was formed primarily of these molecules. (B) Chemical processes involving these molecules proceeded much more slowly under primitive Earth conditions. (C) The presence of these molecules would necessarily precede the existence of simple organisms. (D) Experimental techniques will never be sufficiently sophisticated to produce in the laboratory simple organisms from these chemical constituents.?C? (E) Explanations could easily be developed to explain how simple molecules combined to form these more complex ones. 27. The author’s reaction to the attempts that have been made to explain the development of the first self-duplication organisms can best be described as one of (A) enthusiasm (B) expectation (C) dismay (D) skepticism?D? (E) antipathy ANSWERS 1990 04 SECTION A A C C C B A B C E A E SECTION B C B A B D C C D E A D 1990 10 SECTION A C B A C E D D B A E B SECTION B A D B D B A B C D A C