Chapter 3 - Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, 2nd Edition

Philosophical and Theoretical Foundations Chapter 3 1 Epistemology A philosophical concept that asks how we know what we say we know, and what constitutes legitimate knowledge. 2 3 Philosophical Approaches 1. Positive Social Science One of the three major approaches to crime and justice research that emphasizes discovering causal laws, careful empirical observations, and value-free research. 3 3 Philosophical Approaches 2. Interpretive Social Science An approach to research that emphasizes the systematic analysis and detailed study of people and text in order to arrive at understandings and interpretations of how people construct and maintain meaning within their social worlds. 4 3 Philosophical Approaches 3. Critical Social Science A critical process of inquiry that generates liberating knowledge so as to reveal structural and cultural inhibiting forces in an attempt to help people change their living conditions and build a better world for themselves. 5 4 Philosophical Features of Each Approach The ultimate purpose of research. Assumptions about the nature of reality. Views on free will versus determinism. Assumption abut what constitutes good evidence . 6 {5C22544A-7EE6-4342-B048-85BDC9FD1C3A}  PSS ISS CSS Purpose Discover and document universal causal laws of human behavior. Acquire an in-depth understanding. Verstehen Study the social world in order to transform it. Promotion of social justice Reality Essentialism: A philosophical position that views reality as fairly straightforward and determinable Social Constructionism: Assumes the beliefs and meanings people construct shape reality. Verstehen: Max Weber’s concept defined as empathetic understanding used by researchers as the primary goal. Dialectic Relationship: The idea that two seemingly contradictory elements or processes actually interact in a mutually transformative manner Dominant Ideology: The ideology that benefits and works to the advantage of those with power. 7 {5C22544A-7EE6-4342-B048-85BDC9FD1C3A}  PSS ISS CSS Free Will Determinism: Assumes human actions are largely caused by external forces Human Agency: The capacity of human beings to exercise free choices. People have a high degree of volition Bounded Autonomy: Free will, choices, and decision-making are not unlimited or open ended; rather, they stay within restricted boundaries Evidence Replication: A study testing the scientific credibility of a prior study using the same methods Falsification Doctrine: The philosophical notion that science should be more concerned with contradictory evidence than supporting evidence. Facts are fluid and embedded within the true nature and context of social life Good evidence is verified through the research of subjects Evidence is theory dependent and should reveal deeper links of evidence Praxis: The simultaneous point at which theory informs practice and practice informs theory. 8 Theory and Research THEORY: A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge for purposes of understanding and/or explanation. PERSONAL THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: The idea that each of us carries with us an enormous stock of theoretical knowledge essential for making sense of our surroundings. 9 The Parts of a Theory 1. Theoretical Assumptions: Unstated ideas that underlie a theory or theoretical framework. 2. Concepts: An abstract idea expressed as a word. 3. Variables (Independent and Dependent): Concepts that vary. An independent variable is the effect, result, or outcome of the dependent variable. 10 4. Independent Variable: The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something else. 5. Dependent Variable: The variable that is the effect or is the result or outcome of another variable. 11 The Parts of a Theory 6. Proposition: A theoretical statement that specifies the relationship between two or more concepts (variables). 7. Hypothesis: An empirically testable version of a theoretical proposition that has not yet been tested or verified with empirical evidence. It is most often used in deductive theorizing. 12 The Parts of a Theory 3 Criteria to Establish Causal Explanation 1. Temporal Order The cause must come before an effect X ? Y Y ? X 13 3 Criteria to Establish Causal Explanation 2. Association They occur in a patterned way or appear to act together 14 3 Criteria to Establish Causal Explanation 3. No Plausible Alternatives Relationship is not caused by some other variable A ? B 15 The Language of Variables Variable: A concept that varies, or an empirical measure that can take on multiple values. Attribute: The categories or levels of a variable are attributes. Example: Variable (Gender) Attribute (Female, Male) 16 The Language of Variables Independent Variable (IV): A cause variable that produces an effect of results on a dependent variable. Dependent Variable (DV): The effect or result variable that is caused by an independent variable. IV ? DV Intervening Variable (IVV): A variable that comes between the independent and dependent variables showing link between them. IV ? IVV ? DV 17 The Language of Hypotheses Causal Hypothesis: A statement of a causal explanation or proposition that has at least one independent and one dependent variable, and has yet to be empirically tested. 2. Null Hypothesis: A hypothesis that states there is no significant effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. 3. Experimental Hypothesis: A hypothesis paired with the null hypothesis with two independent variables in which it is unclear whether one or the other variable, or both in combination, produces an effect. 18 5 Potential Errors in Causal Explanation 1. Tautology A form of circular reasoning in which someone appears to say something new but is really talking in circles and making a statement that is true by definition. 19 5 Potential Errors in Causal Explanation 2. Teleology An error in explanation in which the causal relationship is empirically untestable because the causal factor does not come earlier in time than the result, or because the causal factor is a vague, general force that cannot be empirically measured. 20 5 Potential Errors in Causal Explanation 3. Ecological Fallacy An error in explanation in which the empirical data about associations found among large-scale units of analysis are greatly over-generalized and treated as evidence for statements about relationships among much smaller units. 21 5 Potential Errors in Causal Explanation 4. Reductionism An error in explanation in which empirical data about associations found among small-scale units are greatly over-generalized and treated as evidence for statements about relationships among much larger units. 22 5 Potential Errors in Causal Explanation 5. Spurious Relationship An apparent causal relationship that is illusionary due to the effect of an unseen or initially hidden causal factor. If the unseen factor has a causal impact on both an independent and dependent variable, it produces a false impression that there is a relationship between them. 23