Transcript
Invitation to Psychology
Seventh Edition
Chapter 12
Theories of Personality
Learning Objectives (1 of 4)
LO 12.1.A Describe the psychoanalytic perspective on the structure of personality, psychological defense mechanisms, and stages of psychosexual development.
LO 12.1.B Explain how the views of Carl Jung differed from Sigmund Freud’s approach to personality.
LO 12.1.C Summarize the ways in which psychodynamic theories falter under scientific scrutiny.
Learning Objectives (2 of 4)
LO 12.2.A Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or online.
LO 12.2.B List and describe the characteristics of each of the Big Five personality dimensions.
LO 12.3.A Define temperament and discuss how it relates to personality traits.
LO 12.3.B Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality traits.
Learning Objectives (3 of 4)
LO 12.4.A Explain the concept of reciprocal determinism and discuss how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment.
LO 12.4.B Summarize the evidence that suggests parental influence over children’s personality development is limited.
LO 12.4.C Discuss some ways in which peers influence the development of personality in children.
LO 12.5.A Compare individualist and collectivist cultures and describe some of the generalized personality differences between them.
Learning Objectives (4 of 4)
LO 12.5.B Evaluate some pros and cons of the cultural approach to understanding personality.
LO 12.6.A Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May.
LO 12.6.B Discuss how the narrative approach to personality hinges on answering the central question, “Who am I?”
LO 12.6.C Summarize the contributions and shortcomings of the humanist and narrative approaches to personality.
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (1 of 9)
LO 12.1.A Describe the psychoanalytic perspective on the structure of personality,
psychological defense mechanisms, and stages of psychosexual development.
Freud and Psychoanalysis
Personality
A distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual
Psychoanalysis
A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (2 of 9)
Freud and Psychoanalysis continued
Psychodynamic theories
Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (3 of 9)
Freud and Psychoanalysis continued
The Structure of Personality
Id: A reservoir of unconscious energy divided into two drives
The sexual instinct (fueled by the libido)
The death instinct
Ego: Referees between instinctive needs and social demands
Helps to rein in the impulses of the id
Superego: Moral ideals, conscience, and social standards
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (4 of 9)
Freud and Psychoanalysis continued
Defense Mechanisms
Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness
Repression
Projection
Displacement
Regression
Denial
Your Turn (1 of 2)
Your math instructor caught you with the textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that you know he knows you were cheating, you protest your innocence. This defense mechanism is __________.
denial
reaction formation
regression
displacement
Your Turn (2 of 2)
Your math instructor caught you with the textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that you know he knows you were cheating, you protest your innocence. This defense mechanism is __________.
Correct answer: denial
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (5 of 9)
Freud and Psychoanalysis continued
The development of personality
Psychosexual stages
In Freud’s theory, the idea that sexual energy takes different forms as the child matures
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (6 of 9)
Freud and Psychoanalysis continued
Oedipus complex
In psychoanalysis, a conflict occurring in the phallic stage, in which a child desires the parent of the other sex and views the same-sex parent as a rival
Freud in perspective
Many ideas scientifically untestable or failed to find support when tested
Often bullied patients into accepting his explanations
Ignored all evidence disconfirming his ideas
What Do You Know? (1 of 6)
Freud’s stages of personality development are the id, ego, and superego.
True
False
What Do You Know? (2 of 6)
Freud’s stages of personality development are the id, ego, and superego.
Correct answer: True
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (7 of 9)
LO 12.1.B Explain how the views of Carl Jung differed from Sigmund Freud’s approach to personality.
Other Psychodynamic Approaches
Carl Jung (1967)
Collective unconscious
The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of the humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and images (archetypes) that occur across all cultures
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (8 of 9)
Other Psychodynamic Approaches continued
Archetypes
Universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, and dreams, which Jung argued reflect the collective unconscious
Examples of archetypes:
Mandala
The hero
The nurturing Earth mother or powerful father
The shadow
Psychodynamic Theories of Personality (9 of 9)
LO 12.1.C Summarize ways in which psychodynamic theories falter under scientific scrutiny.
Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories
Lacking in three scientific ways
Violating the principle of falsifiability
Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients
Basing theories of personality development on the retrospective accounts of adults
What Do You Know? (3 of 6)
Freud rigorously followed the scientific method to develop his theory of personality structure and development.
True
False
What Do You Know? (4 of 6)
Freud rigorously followed the scientific method to develop his theory of personality structure and development.
Correct answer: False
The Modern Study of Personality (1 of 5)
LO 12.2.A Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular personality tests used in business, dating, or online.
Popular Personality Tests
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Popular in business, at motivational seminars, and with matchmaking services
Assigns people to one of 16 different types, depending on how the individual scores on the dimensions of introverted or extroverted, logical or intuitive
Low reliability
The Modern Study of Personality (2 of 5)
Popular Personality Tests continued
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Consists of several hundred true/false statements
Used for clinical assessments
Anxiety, obsessiveness, conduct problems, social discomfort, paranoia
The Modern Study of Personality (3 of 5)
Popular Personality Tests continued
Trait
A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, or feeling
Objective tests (inventories)
Standardized questionnaires that typically include scales on which people are asked to rate themselves
The Modern Study of Personality (4 of 5)
LO 12.2.B List and describe the characteristics of each of the Big Five personality dimensions.
Core Personality Traits
Raymond B. Cattell (1973)
Factor analysis
A statistical method for identifying clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated and assumed to assess the same underlying trait or ability (i.e., factor)
The Modern Study of Personality (5 of 5)
Core Personality Traits continued
Five central “robust factors”
Extroversion vs. introversion
Agreeableness vs. antagonism
Conscientiousness vs. impulsiveness
Emotional stability vs. neuroticism
Openness vs. resistance to experience
Figure 12.1 Consistency and Change in Personality Over the Lifespan
Although the Big Five traits are fairly stable, changes do occur over the lifespan. As you can see, neuroticism is highest among young adults and then declines, whereas conscientiousness is lowest among young adults and then steadily increases (Costa et al., 1999).
Which Is Correct? (1 of 2)
John has a very messy dorm room, is always late for class, and can never find the notes he took in lecture. Which of the following best describes John’s personality?
Conscientious
Impulsive
Which Is Correct? (2 of 2)
John has a very messy dorm room, is always late for class, and can never find the notes he took in lecture. Which of the following best describes John’s personality?
Correct answer: Impulsive
What Do You Think? (1 of 4)
There are drastic changes in an individual’s personality as he or she progresses through the life span.
True
False
What Do You Think? (2 of 4)
There are drastic changes in an individual’s personality as he or she progresses through the life span.
Correct answer: False
Genetic Influences on Personality (1 of 2)
LO 12.3.A Define temperament and discuss how it relates to personality traits.
Heredity and Temperament
Temperament
Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways
Present in infancy, assumed to be innate
Reactivity
How excitable, arousable, or responsive a baby is
Soothability
How easily the baby is calmed when upset
Genetic Influences on Personality (2 of 2)
LO 12.3.B Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality traits.
Heredity and Traits
Heritability
A statistical estimate of how much of the variability in a given trait can be explained by genetic differences among individuals within a group
Heritability of personality traits is about 50 percent
Within a group of people, about 50 percent of the variation associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group
Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability
What Do You Think? (3 of 4)
Your father is highly anxious and reactive. It is likely that your personality will be exactly the same as his.
True
False
What Do You Think? (4 of 4)
Your father is highly anxious and reactive. It is likely that your personality will be exactly the same as his.
Correct answer: False
Environmental Influences on Personality
(1 of 5)
LO 12.4.A Explain the concept of reciprocal determinism and discuss how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment.
Situations and Social Learning
Reciprocal determinism
In social-cognitive learning theories, the two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits
Environmental Influences on Personality
(2 of 5)
Situations and Social Learning continued
Nonshared environment
Unique aspects of a person’s environment and experience that are not shared with family members
Partially explains why siblings raised in the same home would not have identical personalities: not every encounter each sibling has is shared by the other(s)
Environmental Influences on Personality
(3 of 5)
LO 12.4.B Summarize the evidence that suggests that parental influence over children’s personality development is limited.
Parental Influence – and Its Limits
The shared environment of the home has little if any influence on personality
Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all their children
Even when parents try to be consistent, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out
Environmental Influences on Personality
(4 of 5)
Parental Influence – and Its Limits continued
Parents influence children unrelated to personality
Religious beliefs
Intellectual and occupational interests
Motivation to succeed
Adherence to traditional or modern notions of masculinity and femininity
Profoundly influence if children feel loved, secure and valued
Environmental Influences on Personality
(5 of 5)
LO 12.4.C Discuss some ways in which peers influence the development of personality
in children.
The Power of Peers
Most children will do what they can to conform to the norms of their immediate peer group
Core personality traits are profoundly shaped by learning, peers, situations, and experience
Cultural Influences on Personality (1 of 4)
LO 12.5.A Compare individualist and collectivist cultures and describe some of the
generalized personality differences between them.
Culture, Values, and Traits
Individualist cultures
Cultures in which the self is more likely to be regarded as autonomous, with individual goals and wishes prized above duty and relations with others
Collectivist cultures
Cultures in which the self is more likely to be regarded as embedded in relationships, with harmony with one’s group prized above individual goals and wishes
Table 12.1 Some Generalized Difference Between Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
{21E4AEA4-8DFA-4A89-87EB-49C32662AFE0}Members of Individualist Cultures
Members of Collectivist Cultures
Define the self as autonomous, independent of groups.
Define the self as an interdependent part of groups.
Give priority to individual, personal goals.
Give priority to the needs and goals of the group.
Value independence, leadership, achievement, self-fulfillment.
Value group harmony, duty, obligation, security.
Give more weight to an individual’s attitudes and preferences than to group norms as explanations of behavior.
Give more weight to group norms than to individual attitudes as explanations of
behavior.
Attend to the benefits and costs of relationships; if costs exceed advantages, a person is likely to drop the relationship.
Attend to the needs of group members; if a relationship is beneficial to the group but costly to the individual, the individual is likely to stay in the relationship.
Cultural Influences on Personality (2 of 4)
Culture, Values, and Traits continued
Culture and the self
Individualist and collectivist ways of defining the self influence
Which personality traits we value
How and whether we express emotions
How much we value having relationships or maintaining freedom
Cultural Influences on Personality (3 of 4)
Culture, Values, and Traits continued
Culture and traits
When culture is not appropriately considered, people attribute unusual behavior to personality
Timeliness and tardiness
In some cultures, time is seen as a linear construct; being “on time” is seen as conscientious and thoughtful
In other cultures, time is organized in a parallel fashion; the idea of being “on time” as being more important than a person is contradictory to the cultural norm
What Do You Know? (5 of 6)
Children in the U.S. are more egocentric and less altruistic than children in non-Western cultures.
True
False
What Do You Know? (6 of 6)
Children in the U.S. are more egocentric and less altruistic than children in non-Western cultures.
Correct answer: True
Cultural Influences on Personality (4 of 4)
LO 12.5.B Evaluate some pros and cons of the cultural approach to understanding
personality.
Evaluating Cultural Approaches
Cultural psychologists face the problem of how to describe cultural influences on personality without oversimplifying or stereotyping
People vary according to their temperaments, beliefs, and learning histories, and this variation occurs within every culture
The traits we value, our sense of self vs. community, our notions of the right way to behave begin with the culture in which we are raised
The Inner Experience (1 of 6)
LO 12.6.A Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May.
Humanist Approaches
Humanist psychology
A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential
The Inner Experience (2 of 6)
Humanist Approaches continued
Abraham Maslow
Peak experiences
Rare moments of rapture caused by the attainment of excellence or the experience of beauty
Self-actualization
Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and satisfying
Personality development could be viewed as a gradual progression toward self-actualization
The Inner Experience (3 of 6)
Humanist Approaches continued
Carl Rogers
Unconditional positive regard
Love and support given to another person with no conditions attached
Conditional positive regard
When the love and support we get from others come with strings attached
To get these positive messages, we must satisfy certain conditions or “costs”
The Inner Experience (4 of 6)
Humanist Approaches continued
Rollo May
Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety, and alienation
Existentialism
A philosophical approach that emphasizes the inevitable dilemmas and challenges of human existence
The Inner Experience (5 of 6)
LO 12.6.B Discuss how the narrative approach to personality hinges on answering
the central question, “Who am I?”
Narrative Approaches
Importance of the life narrative
Distinctive personality rests on the story your tell to answer the question, “Who am I?”
Your stories about how you see and explain yourself are the essence of your personality
The Inner Experience (6 of 6)
LO 12.6.C Summarize the contributions and shortcomings of the humanist and
narrative approaches to personality.
Evaluating Humanist and Narrative Approaches
Hard to operationally define many of the concepts
Many of their assumptions are untestable
Added balance to the study of personality
Encouraged others to focus on “positive psychology”
Fostered new appreciation for resilience
Table 12.2 The Major Influences on Personality
{21E4AEA4-8DFA-4A89-87EB-49C32662AFE0}Psychodynamic
Unconscious dynamics shape human motives, guilt, conflicts, and defenses.
Genetic
Children are born with particular temperaments, and most traits are highly influenced by genes.
Environmental
Learning, situations, and unique experiences affect which traits are encouraged and which genes are expressed.
Parents
Modify and shape a child’s temperament and genetic predispositions; affect gender roles, attitudes, and self-concept; affect the quality of the relationship with the child.
Peer group
Influences an individual’s values, behavior, ambitions, goals, etc.
Situation
Determines which behaviors are rewarded and which are punished or ignored, thereby shaping the expression or suppression of particular traits.
Chance events
May influence a person’s experiences and choices in unexpected ways, thus encouraging the development of some traits over others.
Cultural
Norms specify which traits are valued, affect basic notions of the self and personality, and shape behaviors from aggressiveness to altruism.
Humanist
Despite genetic, environmental, cultural, and psychodynamic influences, people can exercise free will to become the kind of person they want to be.
Narrative
Personality rests on the stories people create to explain their lives (e.g., whether they see themselves as victims or survivors); these stories can change.
Which One? (1 of 2)
The personality theorist who described the importance of peak experience was __________.
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Karen Horney
Rollo May
Which One? (2 of 2)
The personality theorist who described the importance of peak experience was __________.
Correct answer: Abraham Maslow
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