Ch08 Perception

Chapter 8 Perception Multiple Choice Questions 1. If it is literally false that Gardenburger's competitor is not “mushroom in origin” then what category of misleading advertising does this fall into? A) direct false claim B) claim-belief discrepancy C) inferential discrepancy D) interpretation discrepancy E) none of the above Answer: A Page: 281 and 306 2. Perception is a process that begins with consumer exposure and attention to marketing stimuli and ends with consumer _____. A) interpretation B) attitudes C) action D) acceptance E) behavior Answer: A Page: 282 3. _____ is a series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored. A) Perception B) Interpretation C) Information processing D) Perceptual exposure E) Selective exposure Answer: C Page: 282 4. Which of the following is NOT a step in the information-processing model? A) exposure B) comparison C) attention D) interpretation E) memory Answer: B Page: 282 5. Which of the following stages of the information-processing model constitute perception? A) exposure B) exposure and attention C) exposure, attention, and interpretation D) exposure, attention, interpretation, and memory E) exposure, attention, interpretation, memory, and action Answer: C Page: 282 6. The fact that all aspects of the perception process are extremely selective is referred to as _____. A) perceptual selectivity B) sensory screening C) ego defenses D) perceptual defenses E) none of the above Answer: D Page: 283 7. _____ occurs when a stimulus is placed within a person's relevant environment and comes within range of their sensory receptor nerves. A) Perception B) Attention C) Interpretation D) Perceptual offense E) Exposure Answer: E Page: 283 8. Carl is doing his homework and has the television on in the background. While it is on, several commercials aired. What stage of the information-processing model does this represent? A) exposure B) attention C) interpretation D) memory E) action Answer: A Page: 283 9. _____ occurs when one fast-forwards through a commercial on a prerecorded program, and _____ involves switching channels when a commercial appears. A) Zapping; muting B) Zapping; zipping C) Zipping; muting D) Zipping; zapping E) Muting; avoiding Answer: D Page: 284 10. John is watching a football game on TV when a commercial comes on. He doesn't want to see it, so he grabs the remote control and changes the channel. What is John doing to avoid the advertising message? A) zipping B) zapping C) muting D) avoiding E) grazing Answer: B Page: 284 11. Carla watches television shows whenever she has time because she uses a digital video recorder to record the shows. When she watches them, she fast-forwards through the commercials, which is known as _____. A) zipping B) zapping C) muting D) exposure E) voluntary exposure Answer: A Page: 284 12. _____ is turning the sound off during commercial breaks. A) Zipping B) Zapping C) Muting D) Silencing E) Voluntary exposure Answer: C Page: 284 13. Zipping, zapping, and muting are simply mechanical ways for consumers to selectively avoid exposure to advertising messages, often referred to as _____. A) exposure avoidance B) selective perception C) selective interpretation D) exposure avoidance E) ad avoidance Answer: E Page: 284 14. Which of the following is FALSE regarding ad avoidance? A) Females are more likely to avoid ads than males. B) High levels of advertising clutter increase ad avoidance. C) Higher social classes avoid ads more than lower social classes. D) Hectic lifestyles increase ad avoidance. E) Younger consumers avoid ads more than older consumers. Answer: A Page: 284 15. _____ involves incorporating brands into movies, television programs, and other entertainment venues in exchange for payment or promotional or other consideration, with the goal being to add realism to the scene, give subtle exposure to the brand, and influence consumers in an unobtrusive manner. A) Ad integration B) Product integration C) Brand integration D) Product placement E) Product synergy Answer: D Page: 285 16. Barry decided he needs a new car, so he started looking at commercials on television and ads in magazines as well as visiting several Web sites. What type of exposure does this represent? A) involuntary B) non-voluntary C) voluntary D) selective E) considered Answer: C Page: 285 17. A study by WPP Group suggests which group of consumers are the most likely to consider buying products they see in movies? A) males B) females C) younger consumers D) older consumers E) gay consumers Answer: C Page: 286 18. Program-length commercials with an 800 number and/or Web address through which to order or request additional information are known as _____. A) infomercials B) direct-to-consumer advertisements C) advertorials D) infotorials E) product placement Answer: A Page: 286 19. The manufacturer of the Little Giant Ladder runs a commercial that is 60 minutes long. The inventor of the ladder shows the versatility and uniqueness of this ladder, and several “regular” people demonstrate how easy it is to use. In fact, this ladder is over 20 ladders in one because of the many different ways it can be configured. Viewers can call the 800 number or visit the Web site to purchase this product. This is an example of a(n) _____. A) product placement B) advertorial C) advertising program D) infomercial E) infotorial Answer: D Page: 286 20. The voluntary and self-selected nature of online offerings where consumers “opt in” to receive email-based promotions is often referred to as _____ . A) voluntary marketing B) optional marketing C) allowable marketing D) acceptable marketing E) permission-based marketing Answer: E Page: 287 21. _____ occurs when the stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves, and the resulting sensations go to the brain for processing. A) Attention B) Perception C) Exposure D) Interpretation E) Selection Answer: A Page: 287 22. Attention is determined by which factor? A) the stimulus B) the individual C) the situation D) a and b E) a, b, and c Answer: E Page: 287 23. Which of the following is considered a stimulus factor affecting attention? A) clutter B) position C) motivation D) ability E) all of the above Answer: B Page: 288-294 24. Which of the following is NOT considered a stimulus factor affecting attention? A) size B) intensity C) clutter D) position E) isolation Answer: C Page: 288-294 25. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding stimulus factors and attention? A) Larger stimuli are more likely to be noticed than smaller ones. B) Stimuli with greater intensity (e.g., loudness, brightness, length) are more likely to be noticed than less intense stimuli. C) Attention generally increases across repeated exposures, particularly when those exposures occur in a short period of time. D) Individuals tend to be attracted to pleasant stimuli and repelled by unpleasant stimuli. E) Consumers pay more attention to stimuli that contrast with their background than to stimuli that blend with it. Answer: C Page: 288-294 26. Attention generally _____ across repeated exposures, and repetition often _____ recall. A) increases; decreases B) decreases; increases C) remains constant; decreases D) remains constant; increases E) increases; increases Answer: B Page: 289 27. Ron owns a small retail establishment and is seeking your advice regarding getting shoppers' attention in the store. What should you recommend to Ron to help him get shoppers' attention? A) Ron should use cool colors, such as blues and grays, for displays. B) Ron should not use large displays because that can overwhelm shoppers. C) Ron should use warm colors, such as reds and yellows, because they are more arousing than cool colors. D) Ron should use displays with as much information as possible because shoppers will be able to attend to all of it. E) Ron should not use displays with moving parts because they will distract shoppers. Answer: C Page: 288-294 28. Which of the following statements is true regarding stimulus position and attention with respect to advertising? A) Position effects in advertising are the same regardless of the medium used. B) Ads on the left-hand page receive more attention than those on the right based on how we peruse magazines and newspapers. C) For U.S. readers, high-impact zones in print ads and other print documents tend to be more toward the top and left of the ad. D) In online contexts, horizontal banners attract more attention then vertical banners. E) In television, the probability of a commercial being viewed and remembered increases as it moves from being the first to air during a break to the last to air. Answer: C Page: 290-291 29. _____ is separating a stimulus object from other objects. A) Positioning B) Isolation C) Formatting D) Contrasting E) Lateralization Answer: B Page: 292 30. _____ refers to the manner in which the message is presented. A) Position B) Isolation C) Format D) Contrast E) Lateralization Answer: C Page: 292 31. For a period of time, Energizer Batteries used mock commercials for seemingly boring, mundane products. A few seconds into the mock commercial, viewers heard the distinctive drumbeat of the Energizer Bunny before it marched across the screen. Several viewers said that when they heard the drums, they looked at and attended to the commercial because they liked the bunny. However, over time, viewers stopped paying attention to the commercial. What theory suggests that if a stimulus doesn't change, over time we adapt or habituate to it and begin to notice it less? A) Adaptation level theory B) Dual-coding theory C) Expectation theory D) Wear-out theory E) Over-exposure theory Answer: A Page: 293 32. _____ represents the number of cues in the stimulus field. A) Interestingness B) Contrast C) Expectations D) Information Quantity E) Size/Intensity Answer: D Page: 293 33. Walker was gathering information on plasma and LCD TVs because he wanted to purchase one for his household. He bought several electronic product magazines, visited several electronics stores, searched the Internet, and paid attention to the ads in the newspaper to learn more about this product. However, he was confronted with so much information that he could not attend to all of it. In fact, he it got to the point that he would not attend to it and became frustrated. This is an example of _____. A) information overload B) information burnout C) shopping burnout D) giving up E) consumer backlash Answer: A Page: 293-294 34. Which of the following is considered an individual factor affecting attention? A) motivation B) intensity C) clutter D) attractiveness E) isolation Answer: A Page: 294 35. What are the major individual factors affecting attention? A) needs and wants B) hemispheric lateralization and interpretation C) motivation and needs D) exposure and interpretation E) motivation and ability Answer: E Page: 294 36. _____ is a drive state created by consumer interests and needs. A) Ability B) Emotion C) Cognition D) Motivation E) Focused attention Answer: D Page: 294 37. _____ indicates motivation or interest in a specific product category, and it can be temporary or enduring. A) Ability B) Product involvement C) Cognition D) Focused attention E) Interest Answer: B Page: 294 38. Cameron was searching the Internet for information on digital cameras. He went to a search engine (i.e., Goggle) and searched the key words “digital camera.” Unbeknownst to him, several banner ads for brands and retailers of digital cameras appeared on the results page that were activated based on the terms he used in his search. These banner ads are known as _____. A) product placement B) zoned banners C) smart banners D) smart placements E) behavioral ads Answer: C Page: 294 39. James is interested in just about any type of electronic equipment, such as digital video recorders, computers, MP3 players, and digital cameras. He subscribes to several magazines devoted to these types of products, and he visits several different Web sites to learn more about these products. Which individual factor affecting attention is influencing James to attend to information about these products? A) ability B) information quantity C) interestingness D) expectations E) motivation Answer: E Page: 294 40. _____ refers to the capacity of individuals to attend to and process information. A) Intelligence B) IQ C) Ability D) Aptitude E) Motivation Answer: C Page: 294 41. Which of the following is an ability factor related to attention that may require less attention to the brand's ads by an individual due to their high existing knowledge? A) involvement B) brand familiarity C) brand equity D) contrast E) interestingness Answer: B Page: 294 42. Which factor affecting attention includes stimuli in the environment other than the focal stimulus (i.e., the ad or package) and temporary characteristics of the individual that are induced by the environment, such as time pressures or a crowded store? A) individual factors B) external factors C) transient factors D) situational factors E) nonprogrammatic factors Answer: D Page: 294 43. Which of the following is a situational factor affecting attention? A) program involvement B) ability C) motivation D) repetition E) isolation Answer: A Page: 294-295 44. _____ represents the density of stimuli in the environment. A) Program involvement B) Clutter C) Repetition D) Intensity E) Isolation Answer: B Page: 295 45. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding situational factors affecting attention? A) Motivation and ability are two major situational factors affecting attention. B) In advertising, consumers pay less attention to a commercial in a large cluster of commercials than they do to one in a smaller set. C) Clutter represents the density of stimuli in the environment. D) Program involvement refers to how interested viewers are in the program or editorial content surrounding the ads. E) Clutter and program involvement are two major situational factors affecting attention. Answer: A Page: 294-295 46. The idea behind _____ is that different parts of our brain are better suited for focused versus nonfocused attention. A) right brain/left brain lateralization B) subliminal lateralization C) hemispheric lateralization D) interpretation E) affective interpretation Answer: C Page: 296 47. Which side of the brain is primarily responsible for verbal information, symbolic representation, sequential analysis, and the ability to be conscious and report what is happening? A) right B) left C) front D) back E) top Answer: B Page: 296 48. Which side of the brain deals with pictorial, geometric, timeless, and nonverbal information without the individual being able to verbally report it? A) right B) left C) front D) back E) top Answer: A Page: 296 49. A message presented so fast or so softly or so masked by other messages that one is not aware of seeing or hearing it is called a(n) _____ stimulus. A) subversive B) sublingual C) lateralized D) subliminal E) unfocused Answer: D Page: 296 50. Which of the following statements is true regarding subliminal stimuli? A) Research on messages presented too rapidly to elicit awareness indicates that such messages can actually have a substantial effect. B) There is evidence that marketers are using subliminal messages. C) A subliminal ad is different from a “normal” ad in that it “hides” key persuasive information within the ad by making it so weak that it is difficult or impossible for an individual to physically detect. D) Subliminal advertising has not been the focus of intense study and public concern. E) Masked symbols, deliberate or accidental, do appear to affect standard measures of advertising effectiveness and can influence consumption behavior. Answer: C Page: 296 51. _____ is the assignment of meaning to sensations. A) Attention B) Perception C) Interpretation D) Hemispheric lateralization E) Information processing Answer: C Page: 296 52. Interpretation is generally a relative process rather than absolute, often referred to as _____. A) perceptual lateralization B) adaptation C) perceptual defenses D) selective perception E) perceptual relativity Answer: E Page: 296 53. _____ meaning is the conventional meaning assigned to a word such as found in the dictionary. A) Semantic B) Psychological C) Cognitive D) Affective E) Seminal Answer: A Page: 297 54. _____ meaning is the specific meaning assigned a word by a given individual or group of individuals based on their experiences, expectations, and the context in which the term is used. A) Semantic B) Psychological C) Cognitive D) Affective E) Seminal Answer: B Page: 297 55. When a teenager says, “It's cool,” his friends understand that he's not talking about the temperature. In this case, the meaning of the word, “cool,” is based on its _____ meaning. A) semantic B) psychological C) cognitive D) affective E) seminal Answer: B Page: 297 56. _____ is a process whereby stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning. A) Affective interpretation B) Consumer inference C) Cognitive interpretation D) Perceptual interpretation E) Perceptual relativity Answer: C Page: 297 57. _____ is the emotional or feeling response triggered by a stimulus such as an ad. A) Affective interpretation B) Consumer inference C) Cognitive interpretation D) Perceptual interpretation E) Perceptual relativity Answer: A Page: 297 58. When Joan sees an ad with a kitten or puppy, she always pays attention because seeing them makes her feel so happy. This emotional or feeling response triggered by the ads is known as _____. A) affective interpretation B) consumer inference C) cognitive interpretation D) perceptual interpretation E) perceptual relativity Answer: A Page: 297 59. Which of the following is NOT an individual characteristic that influences interpretation? A) traits B) learning and knowledge C) expectations D) organization E) all of the above are individual characteristics that influence interpretation Answer: D Page: 297-299 60. Some people experience emotions more strongly than do others, which is a trait known as _____. A) physiological differentiation B) psychological differentiation C) affect intensity D) cognitive intensity E) psychological intensity Answer: C Page: 298 61. Some people are known as “super tasters” because they have a higher concentration of taste buds compared to normal people. As a result, they tend to dislike the taste of broccoli because they claim it is too bitter. What type of trait is this? A) affective B) cognitive C) psychological D) physiological E) mental Answer: D Page: 298 62. Denise tends to experience emotions more strongly than most people, so much so that there are some ads that she cannot even watch because they make her cry. This trait is known as _____. A) physiological differentiation B) psychological differentiation C) affect intensity D) cognitive intensity E) psychological intensity Answer: C Page: 298 63. Which of the following is an individual characteristic that influences interpretation? A) expectations B) organization C) changes D) proximity E) clutter Answer: A Page: 298 64. Individuals' interpretation of stimuli tend to be consistent with their expectations, an effect referred to as the _____. A) expectation response B) affect intensity C) individual bias D) expectation trait E) expectation bias Answer: E Page: 298 65. Which of the following characteristics influencing interpretation represents factors beyond the stimulus itself? A) individual B) personal C) situational D) stimulus E) inferential Answer: C Page: 299 66. Which of the following is NOT a situational characteristic influencing interpretation? A) time pressure B) mood C) number of other individuals present D) nature of the material surrounding the message in question E) all of the above are situational characteristics influencing interpretation Answer: E Page: 299 67. Color and the nature of the programming surrounding the brand's advertisement are examples of _____ present in the situation that can play a role in consumer interpretation independent of the actual stimulus. A) stimulus characteristics B) contextual cues C) situational organization D) stimulus cues E) stimulus traits Answer: B Page: 299-300 68. An advertiser who formats its factual information so that it is easier to process _____. A) is tapping into the isolation effect B) is basing their strategy on figure-ground theory C) is utilizing adaptation level theory D) will increase the chances that their information is perceived to be true E) none of the above Answer: D Page: 300 69. The size, shape, and color are specific _____ of the stimulus that can affect interpretation. A) cues B) traits C) elements D) contextual cues E) signals Answer: B Page: 300 70. _____ involve(s) the use of an unexpected twist or artful deviation in how a message is communicated either visually in the ad's picture or verbally in the ad's text or headline. A) Rhetorical figures B) Proximity C) Ambush marketing D) Contextual figures E) Affective interpretation Answer: A Page: 301 71. _____ is(are) a stimulus characteristic that refers to the physical arrangement of the stimulus objects and can affect consumer interpretation and categorization. A) Proximity B) Rhetorical figures C) Contextual cues D) Organization E) Closure Answer: D Page: 300 72. _____ refers to the fact that stimuli positioned close together are perceived as belonging to the same category. A) Organization B) Proximity C) Closeness D) Closure E) Affect Answer: B Page: 301 73. Any communication or activity that implies, or from which one could reasonably infer, that an organization is associated with an event, when in fact it is not is known as _____. A) gorilla marketing B) tangential marketing C) stealth marketing D) ambush marketing E) product placement Answer: D Page: 301 74. Swiss Miss instant hot chocolate uses images of winter Olympic athletic events with athletes and fans warming up to a mug of their instant cocoa. While Swiss Miss is not an official sponsor of the winter Olympics, consumers viewing the ads might reasonably infer that they were. What type of marketing is this? A) gorilla marketing B) stealth marketing C) product placement D) unethical marketing E) ambush marketing Answer: E Page: 301 75. _____ involves presenting an incomplete stimulus with the goal of getting consumers to complete it and thus become more engaged and involved. A) Proximity B) Ambush marketing C) Closure D) Inference E) Figure-ground Answer: C Page: 301 76. _____ involves presenting the stimulus in such a way that it is perceived as the focal object to be attended to and all other stimuli are perceived as the background. A) Proximity B) Closure C) Inference D) Figure-ground E) Fore-ground Answer: D Page: 303 77. The physiological ability of an individual to distinguish between similar stimuli is called _____. A) just noticeable difference B) sensory discrimination C) consumer inference D) closure E) expectations Answer: B Page: 304 78. The minimum amount that one stimulus can differ from another with the difference still being noticed is referred to as the _____ . A) just noticeable difference B) perceptual difference C) discriminatory difference D) inferential difference E) minimal difference Answer: A Page: 304 79. Sam doesn't know much about digital video recorders, so when he went shopping for one, he decided on the model that had the highest price and the best warranty as well as one he had seen a lot of advertising for. Sam used these factors as _____. A) inferential variables B) quality signals C) just noticeable difference cues D) sensory cues E) choice determinants Answer: B Page: 304 80. When a communication leads consumers to believe something about the product that is not true even though it doesn't present a direct false claim, this is known as _____. A) a direct claim B) deceptive advertising C) interpretation discrepancy D) claim-belief discrepancy E) inferential discrepancy Answer: D Page: 306 81. Beverly went to the store to purchase instant hot chocolate mix for her family. A sign near the hot chocolate directed her to a specific aisle where she could purchase marshmallows. This is an example of a(n) _____. A) cross-promotion B) brand extension C) co-brand D) overlay E) simultaneous promotion Answer: A Page: 307 82. Skippy is a well-known brand of peanut butter that recently introduced a line of snack bars bearing the Skippy name. This is an example of _____. A) co-branding B) a brand extension C) a brand inference D) repetition E) quality signals Answer: B Page: 308 83. Which characteristic of a logo has been found to lead to higher levels of logo liking? A) extremely elaborate B) depicting unusual objects C) symmetrically balanced D) asymmetrically balanced E) extremely simple Answer: C Page: 309 True/False Questions 84. The information processing model has four major steps or stages: exposure, attention, interpretation, and memory. Answer: True Page: 282 85. Zipping, zapping, and muting are mechanical ways for consumers to selectively avoid exposure to advertising messages, often referred to as ad avoidance. Answer: True Page: 284 86. According to a recent study, roughly 50 percent of consumers with DVRs zipped through commercials while viewing pre-recorded material. Answer: False Page: 284 87. Product placement is subliminal. Answer: False Page: 285 88. Attention is determined by three factors: the stimulus, the individual, and the situation. Answer: True Page: 287 89. High-impact zones in print ads and other print documents tend to be more toward the bottom and right of the ad. Answer: False Page: 290 90. Format refers to the placement of an object in physical space or time. Answer: False Page: 292 91. Reasoned-action theory suggests that if a stimulus doesn't change, over time we adapt or habituate to it and begin to notice it less. Answer: False Page: 293 92. Consumer motivation and ability are the major individual factors affecting attention. Answer: True Page: 294 93. The right side of the brain is primarily responsible for verbal information, symbolic representation, sequential analysis, and the ability to be conscious and report what is happening. Answer: False Page: 296 94. Affective interpretation is a process whereby stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning. Answer: False Page: 297 95. Individual characteristics affecting interpretation include traits, learning and knowledge, and expectations. Answer: True Page: 297-299 96. Stimulus characteristics affecting interpretation include traits, organization, and changes. Answer: True Page: 300-304 97. Sounds of letters and words can symbolize product attributes. Answer: True Page: 307 98. A brand name like Charmin with its soft and rounded sounds (compared to the harshness of Scott) is taking advantage of brand morphemes. Answer: False Page: 307 99. Dual-branding is an alliance where two brands are put together on a single product. Answer: False Page: 308 Essay Questions 100. Briefly describe the concepts of information processing and perception. Page: 282-283 Answer: Information processing is a series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored. The information-processing model has four major steps or stages: exposure, attention, interpretation, and memory. The first three of these constitute perception. Perception is a process that begins with consumer exposure and attention to marketing stimuli and ends with consumer interpretation. Exposure occurs when a stimulus comes within range of a person's sensory receptor nerves. Attention occurs when the stimulus is “seen.” Interpretation is the assignment of meaning to the received sensations. Memory is the short-term use of the meaning for immediate decision making or the longer-term retention of the meaning. 101. Your family owns an upscale jewelry store. Because you are a marketing major, your father asked you to develop an advertisement for the store. You know that it is important for consumers to pay attention to your ad or else the money you've spent on media exposure is wasted. Define attention, discuss how five of the several stimulus factors influence attention to a stimulus, and explain how you can use each in your advertisement. Page: 288-294 Answer: Attention occurs when the stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves, and the resulting sensations go to the brain for processing. Attention requires consumers to allocate limited mental resources toward the processing of incoming stimuli. Several stimulus factors influence attention (students only have to discuss five of them): Size--larger stimuli are more likely to be noticed. For example, taking out a large ad in a local newspaper is more likely to be noticed than a smaller ad. Intensity (e.g., loudness, brightness, length) --can increase attention. For this type of retail store, sparkling jewelry might attract viewers' attention. Attractive Visuals--individuals tend to be attracted to pleasant stimuli and repelled by unpleasant stimuli. Use of attractive people in an ad, especially for this product category, can attract viewers' attention. Color and Movement--both serve to attract attention, with brightly colored and moving items being more noticeable. A color advertisement, especially in a newspaper ad, is likely to catch attention. Of course, movement is possible with television advertising. Position--refers to the placement of an object in physical space or time. In print contexts, ads on the right-hand page receive more attention, and high-impact zones tend to be more toward the top and left of a printed ad. Vertical banner ads attract more attention than do horizontal ones. Finally, in television, first appearing commercials tend to be attended to more so than ones appearing later in a commercial pod. Isolation--separating a stimulus object from other objects tends to enhance attention to the stimulus. In advertising, the use of “white space” is based on this principle. Format--refers to the manner in which the message is presented, and simple, straightforward presentations receive more attention than complex presentations. Elements in an advertisement that increase the effort required to process the message tend to decrease attention. Contrast and Expectations--consumers pay more attention to stimuli that contrast with their background than to stimuli that blend with it. Expectations drive our perceptions of contrast. Interestingness--factors that increase curiosity can increase interest and the attention paid to the stimulus. Information Quantity--represents the number of cues in the stimulus field. Information overload occurs when consumers are confronted with so much information that they cannot or will not attend to all of it. 102. Discuss the individual factors that affect attention. Page: 294 Answer: Consumer motivation and ability are the major individual factors affecting attention. Motivation is the drive state created by consumer interests and needs. Interests are a reflection of overall lifestyles as well as a result of goals and needs. Product involvement indicates motivation or interest in a specific product category, and it can be temporary or enduring. Either way, product involvement motivates attention. Ability refers to the capacity of individuals to attend to and process information and is related to knowledge and familiarity with the product, brand, or promotion. Experts can attend to more information, more quickly and more effectively than novices and tend to be less plagued by information overload. Brand familiarity is an ability factor related to attention, and those with high brand familiarity may require less attention to the brand's messages due to their high existing knowledge. 103. Define interpretation and discuss individual characteristics affecting it. Page: 296-299 Answer: Interpretation is the assignment of meaning to sensations and is related to how we comprehend and make sense of incoming information. Individual characteristics affecting interpretation are traits, learning and knowledge, and expectations. Inherent physiological and psychological traits, which drive our needs and desires, influence how a stimulus is interpreted. From a physiological standpoint, consumers differ in their sensitivity to stimuli. From a psychological standpoint, consumers have natural cognitive, emotional, and behavioral predispositions. Learning and knowledge affects interpretations. For example, meanings attached to such “natural” things as time, space, friendship, and colors are learned and vary widely across cultures. Consumers also learn about marketer-created stimuli like brands and promotions through their experiences with them. Finally, individuals' interpretations of stimuli tend to be consistent with their expectations, an effect referred to as the expectation bias. Consumers' expectations are the result of learning and can be formed very quickly, wielding enormous influence and can be hard to change. 104. What is meant by the term inference, and how do consumers use inferences? Page: 304-306 Answer: Interpretation often requires consumers to make inferences. An inference goes beyond what is directly stated or presented. Consumers use available data and their own ideas to draw conclusions about information that is not provided. Consumers use quality signals, images, and missing information to draw inferences regarding message interpretation. Consumers draw inferences about product quality through a number of quality signals, such as price, advertising intensity, and warranties. Others include country of origin as well as brand effects. In general, quality signals operate more strongly when consumers lack the expertise to make informed judgments on their own, when consumer motivation or interest in the decision is low, or when other quality-related information is lacking. Consumers also infer meaning from images, such as from pictures placed in an advertisement. Marketers must understand the meanings their audiences assign various images and words and use them in combination to construct messages that will covey the desired meaning. When data about an attribute are missing, consumers may assign it a value based on a presumed relationship between that attribute and one for which data are available.