P.Lecture 9

Family and Gender Relations Week 9 Lecture Definitions Marriage: a commitment and ongoing exchange. Expressive: emotional dimension: (i.e. love sexual gratification, companionship, and empathy.) Instrumental: task-oriented dimension (i.e. earning a living, spending money, and maintaining a household). Family: two or more people related by blood, adoption or some form of extended commitment, residing together. Variability in Family Patters -- Number of partners: Monogamy: two partners Polygyny: one man, two or more women Polyandry: one woman, two or more men Group marriage: multiple partners 75% of world’s societies, but not 75% of world’s population, accept some form of polygyny. (2005: Education Canada) Uniformity and Family Patterns Lifelong heterosexual marriage is the norm, but the Israeli kibbutz placed a lower premium on marriage. Incest taboo: almost universal. Importance of inheritance: provides continuity, but can perpetuate inequality. If for sons, it promotes gender inequality. (2005: Education Canada) Family Change 1870-1950: emerging concern with child quality. Smaller families, Declining economic benefit of kids 1960-1970 Younger age at marriage, Beginning of rise in divorces 1970-1985 Growth of common-law and children in unions 1985- Levelling of divorce levels Increase in post-marital cohabitation Plateau in fertility Higher proportion of births after age 30 1950s might not be a “golden age.” (2005, Education Canada) Macro Explanations of Family Change Changes in one part of society affect other parts. In pre-industrial societies, families are economic units as well as units of reproduction and socialization. Industrialization brings structural differentiation and families lose roles, especially economic roles. With wage labour for young, families have less control With women entering labour force, women postpone marriage, childbirth,and are less dependent on a breadwinner (2005: Education Canada) Micro or Cultural Explanations In pre-industrial societies, people got emotional support through religion. Mechanical solidarity held people together. In industrial societies, organic solidarity, or division of labour, hold people together. Families become centres of nurturing and affection. Families: from institution to companionship, a loosening up of relationships. (2005: Education) Marriage and Mate Selection From early to mid-20th century: Downward trend in age at home leaving, first marriage, first birth, last birth, and home leaving of children Subsequently: Upward trend and experience in cohabitation, separations But many outcomes are influenced by increased longevity. (2005: Education Canada) Socialization for Marriage Most are motivated towards marriage. Dating provides opportunities to practice, but girls and boys are socialized by same sex peers: “boys like sex and girls like boys.” Courtship encourages each to be more responsive to the other. Dating is a bargaining relationship? Girls support a “love” standard and boys a “fun” standard. (2005: Education Canada) Home Leaving and Cohabitation Many young people have stayed at home and other have returned, due to education, economics, and parents’ relationship. Great increase in cohabitation, now it is an alternative to marriage and many have children. Homogamy: people marry those like themselves regarding religion, ethnicity, education, etc. Heterogamy: an age difference still occurs, perhaps leading to permanent disadvantage. (2005: Education Canada) Marital and Family Interactions Paid and unpaid work: mostly women and men follow complementary-roles model, men do paid and women do unpaid work, but some women and men do a double burden and some do role-sharing. Lone-parent families: big increase recently. Usually at an economic disadvantage, but could experience increased self-esteem Economically, children are very costly, especially with greater provision for old age, Psychological burden can be high also. But over 90% of young people plan to have children. Greater proportions of children have “inexperienced parents,” few siblings, and fewer and later births. Marital Breakdown Increase in separations and divorce, but 70% of families with children include both biological parents. One-third of recent marriages will end in divorce. Cohabitation is a predictor of divorce. Higher education and higher incomes for husbands reduce the risk of divorce. Martial Functions Decrease in instrumental functions of families, thus less to hold them together. Increase in expressive functions, but if gratification is not mutual, divorce can follow. Higher probability of divorce with early marriage. Higher incidence of divorce for re-marrieds. Divorce occurs because exchanges are unrewarding. (2005, Educaton Canada) Gender Sex: Biological trait, differences in chromosomes, size, hormones, and reproductive organs. Gender: Social construct: norms and expectations of masculinity and femininity. Gender identity: Perception of oneself as a male or female. Gendered order: directs how males and females should act, includes norms, roles, ideology, etc. Gendered division of labour: in paid and unpaid work, males and females act “sex appropriately.” Gender Stratification: Examine the ways societies stratify their members based on gender Gender Roles: Expectations of how people should behave based on one’s gender Gender Roles Men’s roles Anti-feminine, Successful, Aggressive, Sexual, Self-reliant, Instrumental Can be restrictive – male social role Women’s roles Domestic, nurturer, expressive, emotional Structural Functionalism Gendered practices (e.g., division of labour) promote social stability: woman’s vulnerability needs protecting for reproduction, thus Women do private realm and expressive tasks Men do public realm and instrumental tasks But, 16% of families are lone-parent. Some women have a double shift Some men are caregivers (2005: Education Canada) Symbolic Interactionism Definitions of masculinity and femininity, gender norms, roles, and identity, are negotiable Children learn gendered behaviour through socialization Most behaviour is affected by what is defined as gender-appropriate, and when expectations are not met sanctions follow Gender is a continuum with androgyny—a blending—in the middle (2005: Education Canada) Marxist Conflict Perspective Marx’s co-author Engels likened women’s position in the family to the oppressed working class: each was like property. Modern socialists suggested that industrialization resulted in greater gender inequality than farming. (2005: Education Canada) Feminist Perspectives Patriarchy: traits associated with men are more valued than those associated with women. Liberal feminism: gender inequality can be remedied by giving women more opportunity. Socialist feminism: capitalism causes patriarchy, therefore eliminate capitalism. Radical feminism: eliminate male supremacy (the elimination of capitalism is unlikely) with, for example, in vitro fertilization, to permit females to control their bodies. (2005: Education Canada) Body Image Dissatisfaction with one’s body & weight is widespread and begins early Cult of thinness (for girls) causes damage and death Anorexia & Bulimia Both girls and boys have self-concept problems Boys are concerned with weight gain, leading to steroid use, and concerns about penis size Women are concerned with hips and breasts Media and fashion industry get blamed for body image problems Objectification: viewing a person as an object, especially a sexual object Ads featuring female bodies contribute to the gender gap More cosmetic surgery for women than men, but men are increasing getting more work done (2005: Education Canada) Gendered Wage Gap 2002: 59.9% of women and 73.3% of men in labour force 28% of women and 11% of men work part-time. Female occupational ghettos remain Today women are less likely to major in nursing and education Women receive 58% of university degrees Increases are occurring in engineering Women still do more of the caring work at home Women earn $0.73 for every $1.00 men earn For single women, it is $0.93; for married $0.69 Women expect lower entry salaries than men Factors like field of study, job responsibility, and work experience explain only a small part of the gap; other factors like discrimination and unequal division of household labour may explain more Gap experienced over a lifetime can leave women at a disadvantage after retirement (2005: Education Canada) Women in the Workforce Underrepresented (1999) Trades, transport, and construction Natural sciences, engineering and mathematics Senior management Overrepresented (1999) Nursing, therapy, other health related Clerical and administrative Teaching Sales and service 6.2% 19.6% 26.8% 86.5% 75.3% 62.1% 58.7% Experiencing Violence Recent studies have found much reciprocity in abuse, but is the abuse of the same quality? What is the Severity of abuse Long-term repercussions Workplace harassment, mostly of women, is not just of the greater power men have Female bosses harass less Harassment can come from lower level men Comments may be sexist/ageist, especially if directed to weaker/more vulnerable people Men are killed at twice the rate of women Sexual assault: 9:1 female:male victim ratio (2005: Education Canada) Working Toward Change Employment equity: an employer must demonstrate why a male applicant would be better than a female before hiring him Glass ceiling: invisible limit on women reaching top levels of management Convergence Gap is closing: Pay, Job Tenure & Shared Household Responsibilities But is closing the gap A high priority? (e.g., men have shorter lives) By one method better than another? (e.g., pay gap could be closed by paying men less) Efforts of women’s movement helped cause Organizations to be aware of gender issues Consciousness of dangers of sexism to be present Women to work for pay for much of their lives Close pay gap Now visible minority and poor women are expressing concerns (2005: Education Canada)