The fourth stage of Rostow's stages of economic development is the __________ and is accompanied by ...

Answer to q. 1

c

Answer to q. 2

Symbolic interactionists focus on classroom communication patterns and educational practices, such as labeling that affect students' self-concept and aspirations. According to symbolic interactionists, the process of labeling is directly related to the power and status of those persons who do the labeling and those who are being labeled. In schools, teachers and administrators are empowered to label children in various ways, including grades, written comments on classroom behavior, and placement in classes. For example, based on standardized test scores or classroom performance, educators label some children as special ed or low achievers, whereas others are labeled as average or gifted and talented.. For some students, labeling amounts to a self-fulfilling prophecyan unsubstantiated belief or prediction resulting in behavior that makes the originally false belief come true. A classic form of labeling and the self-fulfilling prophecy occurs through the use of IQ (intelligence quotient) tests, which claim to measure a person's inherent intelligence, apart from any family or school influences on the individual. In many school systems, IQ tests are used as one criterion in determining student placement in classes and ability groups. In the 1960s, two social scientists (Rosenthal and Jacobson) conducted an experiment in an elementary school during which they intentionally misinformed teachers about the intelligence test scores of students in their classes.

Despite the fact that the students were randomly selected for the study and had no measurable differences in intelligence, the researchers deliberately misinformed the teachers that some of the students had extremely high IQ test scores whereas others had average to below-average scores. As the researchers observed, the teachers began to teach exceptional students in a different manner from other students. In turn, the exceptional students began to outperform their average peers and to excel in their classwork. This study called attention to the labeling effect of IQ scores.

Answer to q. 3

b

Answer to q. 4

b

Answer to q. 5

According to conflict theorists, the hidden curriculum is the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools. Although students from all social classes are subjected to the hidden curriculum, working-class and poverty-level students may be affected the most adversely. For example, one study of five elementary schools in different communities found significant differences in how knowledge was transmitted to students even though the general curriculum of the school was organized similarly.

Through the hidden curriculum, schools make working-class and poverty-level students aware that they will be expected to take orders from others, arrive at work punctually, follow bureaucratic rules, and experience high levels of boredom without complaining. Educational credentials are extremely important in societies that emphasize credentialisma process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications. Credentialism is closely related to meritocracy, a social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort. According to conflict theorists, gender bias is embedded in both the formal and hidden curricula of schools. Though most girls and young women in the United States have a greater opportunity for education than those living in developing nations, their educational opportunities are not equal to those of boys and young men in their social class. Over time, this kind of differential treatment has undermined females' self-esteem and discouraged them from taking certain courses in school, such as math and science, which were usually dominated by male teachers and students.

Answer to q. 6

a

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