Ch16 Motivating Employees.docx

Chapter 16 Motivating Employees TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation is a result of an interaction between a person and a situation. (True; p. 452) The three key elements in the definition of motivation are energy, direction, and achievement. (False; p. 452) High levels of effort don’t necessarily lead to favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. (True; p. 452) EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION The best-known theory of motivation is probably McGregor’s Theories X and Y. (False; p. 453) Maslow argued that each level in the needs hierarchy must be substantially satisfied before the next is activated. (True; p. 454) Lower-order needs are satisfied internally while higher-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally. (False; p. 454) The two-factor theory is also called Theory X and Theory Y. (False; p. 455) Herzberg believed that the data from his study suggested that the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction. (False; p. 455) CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Based on McClelland’s three-needs theory, high achievers perform best when the odds are against them. (False; p. 456) The best managers are high in the need for power and high in the need for affiliation. (False; p. 456) Reinforcement theory is related to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. (False; p. 460) The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs and focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. (True; p. 460) Job design refers to the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs. (True; p. 460) Adding vertical depth to a job is called job enlargement. (False; p. 460) Job enlargement increases job depth. (False; p. 461) When a mail sorter’s job is expanded to include mail delivery, the mail sorter has experienced job enlargement. (True; p. 461) In the job characteristics model, skill variety refers to the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. (False; p. 462) According to the job characteristics model, task identity is not important. (False; p. 462) According to equity theory, a person who earns $50,000 will be less satisfied with his/her pay than a person who earns $100,000. (False; p. 464) Equity theory has three referent categories: other, system, and self. (True; p. 465) The three variables in Vroom’s expectancy theory are valence, instrumentality, and expectancy. (True; p. 466) Vroom would say that if a person values an outcome, his/her effort to obtain that outcome will always be great. (False; 466) CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION Equity theory has a relatively strong following in the United States. (True; p. 469) Flextime is a scheduling system in which employees work four 10-hour days. (False; p. 470) Job sharing consists of two or more people who split a full-time job. (True; p. 470) Most temporary workers prefer the temporariness of their jobs. (False; p. 472) Performance-based compensation is probably most compatible with expectancy theory. (True; p. 475) Everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonomy, variety, and responsibilities. (False; p. 477) If participation is inconsistent with the culture, managers should consider using assigned goals. (True; p. 478) Employees perform better for managers who care about them. (True; p. 479) Multiple-Choice Questions For each of the following choose the answer that most completely answers the question. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? ______________ refers to the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. Motivation Leadership Effort management Need configuration (a; p. 452) What element of motivation is a measure of intensity or drive? direction energy persistence achievement (b; p. 452) We want employees to _______________ putting forth an effort to achieve organizational goals. persist in consider stop motivate others into (a; p. 452) EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION The drive to find food, drink, and sexual satisfaction is based on what level of need? physiological safety self-actualization social (a; p. 453) An individual who wants to buy a home in an expensive neighborhood with a low crime rate is satisfying which need? esteem safety physiological self-actualization (b; p. 453) Within Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need for belonging is associated with ______________. physiological needs safety needs social needs esteem needs (c; p. 453) The need for such factors as status, recognition, attention, self-respect, autonomy, and achievement are examples of which of the following needs according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? physiological esteem social self-actualization (b; p. 453) Growth, achieving one’s potential, self-fulfillment, and the drive to become what one is capable of becoming are characteristics of which need according to Maslow’s hierarchy? physiological esteem social self-actualization (d; p. 453) Maslow argued that once a need is substantially satisfied, _______________. the next need becomes dominant individuals no longer require that need that need continues to motivate an individual it becomes a higher-order need (a; p. 454) Which of the following is considered a lower-order need? social esteem self-actualization safety (d; p. 454) ___________ assumes that employees have little ambition, dislike work, and avoid responsibility. Theory Y Theory X Self-actualization Need Theory Belongingness Need Theory (b; p. 454) Theory Y assumes that people inherently _____________. want to belong more than anything else avoid responsibility and need to be closely controlled want to work and can exercise self-direction work to satisfy hygiene factors (c; p. 454) Theory X assumed that _______________ needs dominated individuals, and Theory Y assumed that _______________ needs dominated. lower-order; higher-order safety; physiological esteem; self-actualization social; safety (a; p. 454) According to Hertzberg, what characteristic is associated with job dissatisfaction? advancement status work itself growth (b; p. 455) According to Herzberg, when ___________ are adequate, people won't be dissatisfied, but they also will not be satisfied. achievement needs affiliation needs power needs hygiene factors (d; p. 455) According to Herzberg, in order to provide employees with job satisfaction, managers should concentrate on _____________. hygiene factors issues such as pay motivator factors (moderate) extrinsic factors (c; p. 455) CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION According to McClelland, the need to make others behave in a way they wouldn’t have behaved otherwise is which of the following work motives? need for achievement need for power need for affiliation need for motivation (b; p. 456) Which of the following suggests that there is a desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships at work? need for achievement need for power need for fulfillment need for affiliation (d; p. 456) An individual who would enjoy taking on the challenge of personally redesigning the workflow of a manufacturing line to improve employee productivity would probably be rated high on which of the following? need for affiliation need for impact need for achievement need for power (c; p. 456) Goal setting works best when the goals are _____________. specific indefinite infinite moderately challenging (a; p. 458) Difficult goals, when accepted, result in _______________. lower performance than easy goals higher performance than easy goals low satisfaction higher dissatisfaction (b; p. 458) People will do better when they get ______________ because it helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do. input goals equity feedback (d; p. 459) The higher your ______________, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. self-efficacy self-esteem reinforcers job scope (a; p. 459) Goal setting is more effective in cultures located in _______________. Asia North America South America Europe (b; p. 459; AACSB: Globalizations) The concept that behavior is a function of consequences is known as ______________. reinforcement theory leadership group dynamics human resource management (a; p. 460) Reinforcement theorists believe that behavior results from _______________. external consequences internal personality traits, such as need for achievement setting high goals intrinsic satisfiers (a; p. 460) A ______________ is any consequence immediately following a response that increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated. goal reinforcer conclusion job characteristics model (b; p. 460) According to reinforcement theory, rewards are effective if they ___________ a desired behavior. precede follow coincide with decrease (b; p. 460) Behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is _______________. extinguished not high on a list of priorities unstructured less likely to be repeated (d; p. 460) ______________ is the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs. Job scope Job enlargement Job enrichment Job design (d; p. 461) The number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated is ____________. scope enlargement enrichment design (a; p. 461) One of the first attempts to design jobs horizontally expanded jobs and is known as job _____________. enlargement scope rotation enrichment (a; p. 461) Job ______________ is vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities. scope enlargement enrichment design (c; p. 461) The research evidence on the use of job enrichment programs could be classified as ____________. encouraging strongly supportive moderately supportive inconclusive (d; p. 461) The job characteristics model (JCM) identifies ______________ as the degree to which a job has substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. task significance task identity skill variety autonomy (a; p. 462) ______________ is the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Task significance Task identity Skill variety Autonomy (d; p. 462) ______________ is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in an individual’s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. Task significance Task identity Skill variety Feedback (d; p. 462) The job characteristics model provides guidance to managers concerning _______________. job design employee selection pay satisfaction collective bargaining (a; p. 463) A theory that suggests that employees compare their inputs and outcomes from a job to the ratio of input to outcomes of relevant others is known as ______________. action motivation goal setting reinforcement theory equity theory (d; p. 464) Which of the following is not an input according to equity theory? effort experience pay level education (c; p. 464) In general, the research support for equity theory could be described as ______________. strong moderate weak inconclusive (a; p. 465) Which expectancy theory linkage explains the belief that having a high grade point average is critical in obtaining a good job? instrumentality expectancy goal setting to achievement valence (a; p. 466) The importance that an individual places on a potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job is known as _____________. valence or attractiveness of reward operant learning opportunity effort performance linkage or expectancy goal-setting behavior (a; p. 466) CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION Maslow’s hierarchy aligns well with employees in ________________. the United States Mexico Japan Greece (a; p. 468; AACSB: Globalizations) The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator presupposes a willingness to accept a moderate degree of risk and a concern with performance, two cultural characteristics that are relatively absent in _______________. Canada Chile Great Britain the United States (b; p. 469; AACSB: Globalizations) Consistent with a legacy of communism and centrally planned economies, employees exhibit _______________. less expectations of outputs low interest in rewards a low desire for interesting work a greater entitlement attitude (d; p. 469; AACSB: Globalizations) What seems important to almost all workers, regardless of their national culture? the need to achieve the need for self-actualization the desire for interesting work the desire for equity (c; p. 469; AACSB: Globalizations) In a study comparing job-preference outcomes among graduate students in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Singapore, what rated the highest among them all? achievement flexibility growth responsibility (c; p. 469; AACSB: Globalizations) To maximize motivation among today’s diverse workforce, managers need to think in terms of ________________. flexibility consistency needs wants (a; p. 470; AACSB: Diversity) In _____________, employees work fewer days, but more hours per day. a reorganization flexible work hours a job characteristics model a compressed workweek (d; p. 470) ______________ work hours are where employees work a certain number of hours per week, but are free, within limits, to vary the hours of work. Flexible Compressed Congruent Parallel (a; p. 470) What type of job scheduling option would allow two different employees to share one 40-hour-a-week systems analyst position? compressed workweek job sharing flextime telecommuting (b; p. 470) The linking by computer and modem of workers at home with coworkers and management at an office is termed ____________. job sharing compressed workweek flextime telecommuting (d; p. 470) What is a potential disadvantage of telecommuting? flexible hours unsatisfied social needs no commuting casual dress (b; p. 471) Successful motivation of professions requires that managers recognize that the loyalty of professionals is usually toward their _____________. employer short-term financial well-being long-term financial well-being profession (d; p. 472) All of the following are mentioned as suggestions to motivate professionals except _______________. providing them with ongoing challenging projects using money and promotions allowing them to structure their work in ways they find productive rewarding them with recognition (b; p. 472) What will motivate involuntarily temporary employees? pay them more provide health care benefits provide job challenge provide the opportunity for training (d; p. 472) When temps work alongside permanent employees who earn more and get benefits for doing the same job, _______________. the temps tend to work more diligently in hopes of gaining a permanent position the permanent employees tend to work more diligently the performance of temps is likely to suffer the performance of permanent employees is likely to suffer (c; p. 472) How would a manager motivate low-skilled, minimum-wage employees? offer more pay for high levels of performance use employee recognition programs provide the opportunity for training provide the opportunity for full-time employment (b; p. 473) Which of the following is not mentioned as a reward program? employee incentive programs pay-for-performance programs employee recognition programs stock option programs (a; p. 473) ______________ is a motivational approach in which an organization’s financial statements are opened to and shared with all employees. Open-book management Expectancy theory Pay-for-performance Equity theory (a; p. 473) Attempts to show the financial condition of the firm to employees to get them to think like owners of the firm are known as ______________. pay-for-performance programs work sharing arrangements telecommuting open-book management (d; p. 473) _______________ consists of personal attention and expressing interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done. A pay-for-performance program A stock option program An employee recognition program Open-book management (c; p. 473) Consistent with _______________, rewarding a behavior using employee recognition programs immediately following behavior is likely to encourage its repetition. expectancy theory reinforcement theory equity theory Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (b; p. 474) What is an example of an employee recognition program? handwritten notes acknowledging something positive that the employee has done piece-rate pay plans lump-sum bonuses stock options (a; p. 474) Compensation plans that pay employees based on the basis of their contribution to the effectiveness of the organization are referred to as _____________. pay-for-performance programs expectancy theory equity theory stock options (a; p. 474) Piece-rate pay plans, wage incentive plans, profit sharing, and lump-sum bonuses are examples of ______________ programs. open-book management expectancy theory pay-for-performance equity theory (c; pp. 474-475) _______________ are financial instruments that give employees the right to purchase shares of stock at a set price. Stock options Open-book management Employee recognition programs Pay-for-performance programs (a; p. 476) The literature on _______________ suggests that managers should ensure that employees have hard, specific goals and feedback on how well they are doing in achieving those goals. goal-setting theory equity theory reinforcement theories expectancy theory (a; p. 477) Managers must be sure that employees feel confident that increased efforts _______________. can earn them a promotion can lead to achieving performance goals will most definitely result in high achievement will earn them just pay (b; p. 478) Which of the following is not a suggestion for motivating employees? recognize individual differences make goals very difficult to achieve match people to jobs individualize rewards (b; pp. 477-479) Following the ideas of ____________, managers should check the system to see that employees perceive the rewards as being equal to the inputs. expectancy theory three-needs theory goal-setting theory equity theory (d; p. 479) In a stagnant economy where cost-cutting is widespread, _______________ is a low-cost means to reward employees. linking rewards to performance individualizing rewards using recognition offering contingent bonuses (c; p. 479) Scenarios and Questions For each of the following, choose the answer that most completely answers the question. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Motivation to Study Joan has considered her own motivation and discussed it with some of her peers. These other students live in her dormitory. She finds some distinct differences within these other students based on their motivation to study. In making her decisions about where she will spend the money she made during the summer, Joan is more likely to spend the money on clothes. According to Maslow, Joan is seeking to satisfy her ___________. physiological needs safety needs social needs esteem needs (c; p. 453) As she talked to other students, Joan saw some students who needed more direction in their classroom studies because they had little or no ambition if they were left to their own motivation. This view is similar to _______________ needs. physiological safety social self-actualization (d; p. 453) In one of her own classes, Joan can see the material is related to growth and achievement in her career. She is given responsibility to help other students. In Joan’s motivational processes, as described by Herzberg, this class serves as a(n) ________________. achievement need affiliation need power need hygiene factor (d; p. 455) CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Changing Jobs (Scenario) Marty sat in his favorite chair at home and pondered his work situation. The funding in his division had been cut by 25 percent, but the numerical goals did not budge. Something had to change, and he knew it was his job to figure out how to make the goals reachable. He had decided to try to make it work by changing the way tasks are combined in each job. First, he needed to know how many tasks there were to each job and how frequently each task is repeated. He also knew that because of the funding cut, people were going to be asked to increase their job tasks horizontally. But, he also felt that to balance this he should add planning and evaluating responsibilities. No one looked forward to this coming year—managers or staff—but it was do or die. Marty is looking at _______________, or “the way tasks are combined in each job.” job enlargement job scope job depth job design (d; p. 461) Marty was going to ask people to horizontally increase their jobs, also known as job _______________. enlargement scope enrichment design (a; p. 461) The vertical expansion of employees’ jobs, or job ______________, was also suggested by Marty. enlargement scope enrichment design (c; p. 461) Together, even though the employees were clearly being asked to contribute more, he felt they would have a greater degree of control over their work. ______________ describes the degree of control the employees will have over their work. Job enlargement Job depth Job enrichment Job design (b; p. 461) Acme Corporation Acme Corporation’s management feels that employees could be more motivated by their jobs. The jobs were enlarged earlier and some improvements were seen in motivation. Acme Corporation accomplished the process of enlarging the jobs by ______________. changing the pay structure horizontally diversifying the jobs changing the number of breaks during a shift increasing the number of days away from work per month (b; p. 461) To increase the motivation through enrichment, Acme decides to increase the meaningfulness of the work. This can be done by __________________. increasing skill variety decreasing task identity decreasing task significance increasing dependence (a; p. 462) To further enhance the jobs at Acme, managers divided the tasks into jobs that allowed employees to use a collection of skills and talents. These changes could be described as a core dimension of the job characteristics model known as _______________. skill variety task identity feedback autonomy (a; p. 462) Most jobs at Acme were redesigned to allow the employees to complete a whole and identifiable piece of work. This fits ____________, a core dimension of the job characteristics model. skill variety task identity task significance autonomy (b; p. 462) In addition to these changes, the managers at Acme explained how the jobs were now designed to allow the job to affect the lives and work of other people. This serves as _________, a core dimension in the job characteristics model. skill variety task identity task significance autonomy (c; p. 462) As a final point in redesigning the jobs at Acme, the managers developed a program that allowed the employees to have a large degree of freedom in their jobs while giving them information as to the outcomes of their work. These changes serve as _________, a core dimension in the job characteristics model. task significance autonomy task identity skill variety (b; p. 462) A Management Tool (Scenario) The managers wanted and needed something they could actually use as a tool for redesigning the jobs in their departments. They had now sat through 4 days of management training, but so far, with all of the fancy theories, they had not received any specific guidance in this area. Finally, on the last day of the training, they learned about the job characteristics model. Sure, it still had all of the theory and other academic jargon, but it also provided some specific steps to help improve the core job dimensions. One suggestion, ______________, encourages putting existing fragmented tasks back together to increase skill variety and task identity. combining tasks creating natural work units establishing client relationships expanding jobs vertically (a; p. 463) The model also suggests that ______________ will increase employee “ownership” of the work and help them view their work as meaningful. combining tasks creating natural work units establishing client relationships expanding jobs vertically (b; p. 463) ______________ partially closes the gap between the “doing” and the “controlling” aspects of the job and increases employee autonomy. Combining tasks Creating natural work units Establishing client relationships Expanding jobs vertically (d; p. 464) Another suggestion, ______________, allows employees to judge the level of their performance. combining tasks creating natural work units establishing client relationships opening feedback channels (d; p. 464) Motivation to Study Joan has considered her own motivation and discussed it with some of her peers. These other students live in her dormitory. She finds some distinct differences within these other students based on their motivation to study. In one class, Joan questions how fairly she is being treated compared to other students. This part of her motivational processes would best fit into ______________. Maslow’s hierarchy Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory equity theory reinforcement theory (c; p. 464) Angie’s Subordinates Angie wants to understand what her subordinates think about their jobs. These employees are unmotivated. The employees begin to compare their pay and work conditions to the pay and work conditions of friends and relatives who work in other companies in the local area. This process falls under __________ theory. reinforcement expectancy goal-setting equity (d; p. 464) Angie tries to find how strongly employees believed that if they put effort into their work that they would perform the job satisfactorily. This could be defined as _____________. expectancy instrumentality valence equity (a; p. 465) Angie tries to convince the employees that things will get better if they will work harder. As a process of talking to employees, Angie suggests that she will get raises for the employees based on their harder work. The employees do not believe that Angie can get them raises for working harder. The employees’ __________ is not very strong. expectancy instrumentality valence equity (b; p. 466) In the end, the employees decide to work harder, and Angie is allowed to give them a raise of 2 percent. Several of the employees feel the raise was too small. This reinforced their feeling that the company will never pay them based on the value they add to the company. This idea refers to _____________. expectancy instrumentality valence reinforcement (c; p. 466) What Do You Expect? (Scenario) The employees at Acme Toilets Inc. are not working as hard as Jill, their supervisor, would like. The salespeople aren’t meeting their sales quotas, and Jill can’t seem to motivate them to try harder. Jill has been studying expectancy theory and has decided to try to put it into practice. Employees are never able to meet their sales quotas and believe that no matter how hard they work, they’ll never meet them. They perceive the ______________ of their success to be low. instrumentality expectancy valence performance-reward linkage (b; p. 465) Employees believe that they can make their sales quotas, but aren’t sure that management will really reward them when they do. They perceive the ______________ to be low. instrumentality expectancy valence effort-performance linkage (a; p. 466) Management has set the reward for meeting sales quotas at a lower level than last year. Employees perceive that the ______________ is low. instrumentality expectancy valence performance-reward linkage (c; p. 466) Jill has arranged for the bonus system to be changed so that the bonus for meeting sales quotas is much higher than it has ever been before. Jill has altered the _______________. instrumentality expectancy valence performance-reward linkage (c; p. 466) CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION Design Your Own Job (Scenario) Terrence has been brought in to a high-tech company to institute family-friendly programs. He has decided that because of the diverse workforce, alternative working hours will be very attractive to the employees. Terrence allows employees to work four 10-hour days instead of the traditional 5-day workweek. This work arrangement is termed _____________. home-based work a compressed workweek flextime job sharing (b; p. 470) Terrence is allowing two people to split a 40-hour-a-week job. They are splitting the work and the benefits in an arrangement termed ______________. flexible work hours a compressed workweek flextime job sharing (d; p. 470) Some employees that Terrence will manage are working from home via computers. This work arrangement is termed ______________. flexible work hours flextime job sharing telecommuting (d; p. 470) Essay Questions WHAT IS MOTIVATION? In a short essay, explain the concept of motivation. Then identify and describe the three key aspects of motivation. Answer Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. Although, generally speaking, motivation involves any effort exerted toward a goal, we’re most interested in organizational goals because our focus is on work-related behavior. Three key elements are important to this definition: energy, direction, and persistence. The energy element is a measure of intensity or drive. A motivated person puts forth effort and works hard. However, the quality of the effort must be considered as well as its intensity. High levels of effort don’t necessarily lead to favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Effort that’s directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals is the kind of effort we want from employees. Finally, motivation includes a persistence dimension. We want employees to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals. (p. 452) EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION In a short essay, list and discuss the five needs that are based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. Answer Physiological needs: food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical requirements. Safety needs: security and protection from physical and emotional harm, as well as assurance that physical needs will continue to be met. Social needs: affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem needs: internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. Self-actualization needs: growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment; the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. (pp. 453-454) CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION In a short essay, list and discuss the three-needs theory according to David McClelland. Next, identify which of these needs has been studied most extensively and discuss the findings of this research. Answer The three-needs theory says there are three needs that are major motives in work. These three needs include the need for achievement, which is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed; the need for power, which is the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise; and the need for affiliation, which is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Of these three needs, the need for achievement has been researched most extensively. The findings show people with a high need for achievement are striving for personal achievement rather than for the trappings and rewards of success. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it’s been done before. They prefer jobs that offer personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems, in which they can receive rapid and unambiguous feedback on their performance in order to tell whether they’re improving, and in which they can set moderately challenging goals. High achievers aren’t gamblers; they dislike succeeding by chance. They are motivated by and prefer the challenge of working at a problem and accepting the personal responsibility for success or failure. An important point is that high achievers avoid what they perceive to be very easy or very difficult tasks. (pp. 456-457) In a short essay, discuss the equity theory and list five probable behavioral responses that may occur when employees perceive an inequity. Answer Equity theory proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratios to those of relevant others. If an employee perceives his or her ratio to be equal to those of relevant others a state of equity exists. In other words, he or she perceives that the situation is fair. However, if the ratio is unequal, inequity exists and they view themselves as underrewarded or overrewarded. When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it. Equity theory proposes that employees might (1) distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes, (2) behave in some way to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes, (3) behave in some way to change their own inputs or outcomes, (4) choose a different comparison person, or (5) quit their job. (pp. 464-465) In a short essay, contrast distributive justice and procedural justice. Answer Distributive justice has historically provided the basis for equity theory. It is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. More recent equity research has focused on procedural justice, which is the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Distributive justice has a greater influence on employee satisfaction than procedural justice does. Procedural justice tends to affect an employee’s organizational commitment, trust in his/her boss, and intention to quit. (p. 465) CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION In a short essay, explain which theories work best for certain cultures. The discussion should include Maslow’s need hierarchy, the three-needs theory, the equity theory, and Hertzberg’s two-factor theory. Answer Maslow’s need hierarchy argues that people start at the physiological level and then move progressively up the hierarchy in order. This hierarchy, if it has any application at all, aligns with American culture. In countries like Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty avoidance characteristics are strong, security needs would be on top of the need hierarchy. Countries that score high on nurturing characteristics—Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, and Finland—would have social needs on top. We would predict, for instance, that group work will be more motivating when the country’s culture scores high on the nurturing criterion. Another motivation concept that clearly has an American bias is the achievement need. The view that a high achievement need acts as an internal motivator presupposes two cultural characteristics—a willingness to accept a moderate degree of risk (which excludes countries with strong uncertainty avoidance characteristics) and a concern with performance (which applies almost singularly to countries with strong achievement characteristics). This combination is found in Anglo-American countries like the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. On the other hand, these characteristics are relatively absent in countries such as Chile and Portugal. Equity theory has a relatively strong following in the United States. That’s not surprising given that U.S.-style reward systems are based on the assumption that workers are highly sensitive to equity in reward allocations. In the United States, equity is meant to closely link pay to performance. However, recent evidence suggests that in collectivist cultures, especially in the former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, employees expect rewards to reflect their individual needs as well as their performance. Moreover, consistent with a legacy of communism and centrally planned economies, employees exhibited a greater “entitlement” attitude—that is, they expected outcomes to be greater than their inputs. These findings suggest that U.S.-style pay practices may need to be modified, especially in Russia and other former communist countries, in order to be perceived as fair by employees. Despite these cross-cultural differences in motivation, don’t assume there are no cross-cultural consistencies, because there are some. For instance, the desire for interesting work seems important to almost all workers, regardless of their national culture. In a study of seven countries, employees in Belgium, Britain, Israel, and the United States ranked “interesting work” number one among 11 work goals. It was ranked either second or third in Japan, the Netherlands, and Germany. Similarly, in a study comparing job-preference outcomes among graduate students in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Singapore, growth, achievement, and responsibility were rated the top three and had identical rankings. Both studies suggest some universality to the importance of intrinsic factors identified by Herzberg in his two-factor theory. Another recent study examining workplace motivation trends in Japan also seems to indicate that Herzberg’s model is applicable to Japanese employees. (pp. 468-469; AACSB: Globalizations) In a short essay, describe how managers might motivate professional workers. Contrast that with how managers might motivate contingent workers. Answer What motivates professionals? Money and promotions typically are low on their priority list. Why? They tend to be well paid and enjoy what they do. In contrast, job challenge tends to be ranked high. They like to tackle problems and find solutions. Their chief reward in their job is the work itself. Professionals also value support. They want others to think that what they are working on is important. That may be true for all employees, but professionals tend to be focused on their work as their central life interest, whereas nonprofessionals typically have other interests outside of work that can compensate for needs not met on the job. On the other hand, what will motivate involuntarily temporary employees? An obvious answer is the opportunity to become a permanent employee. In cases in which permanent employees are selected from a pool of temps, the temps will often work hard in hopes of becoming permanent. A less obvious answer is the opportunity for training. The ability of a temporary employee to find a new job is largely dependent on his or her skills. If the employee sees that the job he or she is doing can help develop marketable skills, then motivation is increased. From an equity standpoint, you should also consider the repercussions of mixing permanent and temporary workers when pay differentials are significant. When temps work alongside permanent employees who earn more, and get benefits, too, for doing the same job, the performance of temps is likely to suffer. Separating such employees or perhaps minimizing interdependence between them might help managers decrease potential problems. (pp. 471-472) In a short essay, list and discuss six of the ten specific recommendations that should be followed when motivating employees. Answer Recognize individual differences—almost every contemporary motivation theory recognizes that employees aren’t identical. They have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual variables. Match people to jobs—there’s a great deal of evidence showing the motivational benefits of carefully matching people to jobs. For example, high achievers should have jobs that allow them to participate in setting moderately challenging goals and that involve autonomy and feedback. However, keep in mind that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonomy, variety, and responsibility. Use goals—managers should ensure that employees have hard, specific goals and feedback on how well they’re doing in achieving those goals. The determination of whether goals should be assigned by the manager or set with the employee’s participation depends on the perception of goal acceptance and the organization’s culture. If resistance to goals is expected, participation should increase acceptance. If participation is inconsistent with the culture, use assigned goals. Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable—regardless of whether goals are actually attainable, employees who see goals as unattainable will reduce their effort. Managers must be sure, therefore, that employees feel confident that increased efforts can lead to achieving performance goals. Individualize rewards—because employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcer for one may not for another. Managers should use their knowledge of employee differences to individualize the rewards they control, such as pay, promotions, recognition, desirable work assignments, autonomy, and participation. Link rewards to performance—managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. Rewarding factors other than performance will only reinforce those other factors. Important rewards such as pay increases and promotions should be given for the attainment of specific goals. Managers should also look for ways to increase the visibility of rewards, making them potentially more motivating. Check the system for equity—employees should perceive that rewards or outcomes are equal to the inputs. On a simple level, experience, ability, effort, and other obvious inputs should explain difference in pay, responsibility, and other obvious outcomes. Remember that one person’s equity is another’s inequity, so an ideal reward system should weigh inputs differently in arriving at the proper rewards for each job. Use recognition—recognize the power of recognition. In a stagnant economy where cost-cutting is widespread, using recognition is a low-cost means to reward employees. And it’s a reward that most employees consider valuable. Show care and concern for your employees—employees perform better for managers who care about them. Research done by the Gallup Organization with millions of employees and tens of thousands of managers consistently shows this simple truth. The best organizations create “caring” work environments. When managers care about employees, performance results typically follow. Don’t ignore money—it’s easy to get so caught up in setting goals, creating interesting jobs, and providing opportunities for participation that you forget that money is a major reason why most people work. Thus, the allocation of performance-based wage increases, piecework bonuses, and other pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation. (pp. 476-479)