Organizational Behaviour

Perception & Learning in Organizations What is Perception? Social Perception: The process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information about others to gain an accurate understanding of them. Automatic process. We are often unaware of it. Scenario Laptops down. Fill out the following scenario. Work on your own. Do not confer with others. Perception in Organizations 1. What is someone really like? ? Correspondent Inferences 2. What made the person behave as he or she did? ? Causal Attribution Theory Correspondent Inferences Definition: Judgments about people’s dispositions, their traits and characteristics, that correspond to what we have observed of their actions. Make the Correspondent Inference… Act Disposition Messy desk = ____________ Stays late at the office = ____________ Offers coworker ride = ____________ home Are Correspondent Inferences Accurate? External forces. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ed7C3gAXQNA http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tTtVVHg41kU&NR=1 Purposely disguise their true characteristics. Making Accurate Correspondent Inferences Focus on others’ behavior in situations in which they do not have to behave in a socially acceptable manner. E.g. Does the person stay late at the office when everyone else is away on vacation? Focus on behavior for which there appears to be only a single logical explanation. E.g. high paying job, interesting work, desirable location versus high paying job, uninteresting work, undesirable location. Perception in Organizations 1. What is someone really like? ? Correspondent Inferences 2. What made the person behave as he or she did? ? Causal Attribution Theory That Scenario You Filled Out Earlier “Suzy shows up late for her meeting today…” In your opinion, which of the following statements is more likely to be true: Suzy is late because she is lazy. Suzy is late because of traffic. Same Behavior, Different Surrounding Information Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. Scenario 2 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Kelley’s Causal Attribution Theory Definition: The approach suggesting that people will believe others’ actions to be caused by internal or external factors based on three types of information: consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. Harold Kelley Causal Attribution Theory Internal The person. i.e. Suzy External Something else. e.g. traffic 2 types of attributions Causal Attribution Theory 1. Consensus Do other people in the same situation act the same way? No/Low Yes/High 2. Consistency Does the person act the same way at other times when he or she is in the same situation? Yes/High No/Low 3. Distinctiveness Does the person act the same way in other situations? Yes/Low No/High Attribution Internal External Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. What is consensus? Is it high or low? Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. Consensus is low. Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. What is consistency? Is it high or low? Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. Consistency is high. Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. What is distinctiveness? Is it high or low? Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. Distinctiveness is low. Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. What attribution do we make about Suzy’s lateness? Business Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. Low consensus + High consistency + Low distinctiveness = Internal attribution Business Scenario 2 What is consensus? Is it high or low? Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 Consensus is high. Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 What is consistency? Is it high or low? Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 Consistency is low. Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 What is distinctiveness? Is it high or low? Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 Distinctiveness is high. Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 What attribution do we make about Suzy’s lateness? Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Business Scenario 2 High consensus + Low consistency + High distinctiveness = External attribution Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Same Behavior, Different Surrounding Information Scenario 1 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. No one else at the meeting shows up late. Suzy has shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy usually shows up late for work. Scenario 2 Suzy shows up late for her meeting today. Everyone else at the meeting also shows up late. Suzy has not shown up late for these meetings before. Suzy rarely shows up late for work. Group Assignment Whoever doesn’t have a full group of five yet, please come down to the front during the break and schmooze with each other. Break Perceptual Biases Definition: Predispositions that people have to misperceive others in various ways. 1. Fundamental attribution error 2. Halo effect 3. Similar-to-me effect 4. Selective perception 5. First-impression error 6. Self-fulfilling prophecies 7. Stereotypes Fundamental Attribution Error Definition: The tendency to attribute others’ actions to internal causes (e.g. their traits) while largely ignoring external factors that also may have influenced their behaviour. E.g. Shawn got the Old Navy account. E.g. Melissa crashed the company car. Why does Fundamental Attribution Error occur? Trait explanations are easy. Situational explanations are more complex. Halo Effect Definition: The tendency for our overall impressions of others to affect objective evaluations of their specific traits; perceiving high correlations between characteristics that may be unrelated. Halo can be positive or negative. Often occurs during performance appraisal. Can apply to individuals or teams. Halo Effect Similar-To-Me Effect Definition: The tendency for people to perceive in a positive light others who are believed to be similar to themselves in any of several different ways. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yi4JxUSRSRY Similar-To-Me Effect Many different types of similarity, such as: Work values and habits. Beliefs about the way things should be at work. Demographic variables (age, race, gender). Pulakos & Wexley (1983) Study of the Similar-To-Me Effect 171 supervisor-subordinate pairs. Various industries. Subordinates rated supervisor’s: Support, Interaction Facilitation, Goal Emphasis, Work Facilitation. Supervisors rated subordinate’s: Performance, conformance, Dependability, Personal Adjustment, General Satisfactoriness. Both rated their own similarity to the other: “My subordinate and I are similar kinds of people” (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither, Agree, Strongly Agree). Findings: Those who rated A or SA rated the other significantly higher than those who rated D or SD. Glossary Support: Behavior that enhances a subordinate’s feeling of worth and importance. Interaction Facilitation: Behavior that facilitates developing close, mutually satisfying relationships within the group. Goal Emphasis: Behavior that stimulates enthusiasm within the work group for meeting goals and achieving excellent performance. Work Facilitation: Behavior that helps each subordinate achieve goal attainment by activities such as scheduling, coordinating, planning, and providing necessary resources and tools. Performance: Subordinate’s promotability and quality and quantity of work. Conformance: How well the subordinate gets along with the supervisor and coworkers and the subordinate’s observance of rules and regulations. Dependability: Frequency of disciplinary problems created by the subordinate. Personal Adjustment: The subordinate’s emotional health and well-being. General Satifactoriness: Overall measure of performance. Higgins & Judge’s (2004) Study of the Similar-To-Me Effect 117 Business and Liberal Arts undergraduates. Resume on file with placement office. Called for interview. Ingratiation: The use of specific actions to increase the target person’s liking of the individual (e.g. opinion conformity). Self-promotion: Promoting one’s skills and abilities to create an impression of competence. Which tactic led to a job offer? Higgins & Judge’s (2004) Study of the Similar-To-Me Effect Ingratiation Scale Items/Behaviors I praised the organization. I complimented the interviewer or organization. I discussed non-job-related topics about which the recruiter and I share similar opinions. I discussed interests I shared in common with the recruiter. I found out what kind of person the organization was seeking and explained how I fit in. I indicated my interest in the position and the company. I indicated my enthusiasm for working for this organization. I smiled a lot or used other friendly non-verbal behaviors. I maintained eye contact with the interviewer. Higgins & Judge’s (2004) Study of the Similar-To-Me Effect Self-Promotion Scale Items/Behaviors I played up the value of positive events that I took credit for. I described my skills and abilities in an attractive way. I took charge during the interview to get my main points across. I took credit for positive events even if I was not solely responsible. I made positive events I was responsible for appear better than they actually were. Selective Perception Definition: The tendency to focus on some aspects of the environment while ignoring others. “Why Men Shouldn’t Write Advice Columns”. Waller et al’s (1992) Selective Perception Study: “What functional area of your business contributed most strongly to its effectiveness?” Answer depended on the functional background of the executive. Henry’s Selectivemindedness 1908: Model T introduced. 15 million sold over next two decades. 1927: Discontinued line. Shut down production for months ($250 million) to retool for successor, Model A. Chrysler’s Plymouth creeped in. GM seized market leadership. Why did Henry Ford, who was such a visionary in the industry’s infancy, fail to see that the Model T was about run its course, and that a smooth transition to a new vehicle was essential? Model T Model A Henry’s Selectivemindedness Basic transportation. Favorite slogans: “It takes you there and it brings you back.” “The customer can have any color he wants so long as its black.” Levitt: Every product = Core product (primary purpose) + Augmented product (additional functions and features). 1920: U.S. consumers had more money and more leisure time. Automobile not just a machine, but a status symbol. Cars by GM and Chrysler came in a variety of colors, their models changed every year, etc. (Harvard Business Review, July-August 2008) First-Impression Error Definition: The tendency to base our judgments of others on our earlier impressions of them. First-Impression Error Dougherty et al’s (1994) Study of First-Impression Error Corporate interviewers rated prospective employees’ files prior to interviewing them. Interviews were videotaped and analyzed. The more highly employees were rated: The more the interviewer had a positive style during the interview. The more the interviewer demonstrated a favorable orientation toward the offer. The more the interviewer did to sell the company/job. The more the interviewer provided job information. The less the interviewer asked questions. Taking it one step further… So far we’ve been focusing on how my perceptions influence my behavior. How might my perceptions influence YOUR behavior? Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Defintion: The tendency for someone’s expectations about another to cause that person to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations. Pygmalion Effect Golem Effect I have high expectations I have low expectations of you. of you. Your performance Your performance increases. decreases. Validated through experiments with military samples. Eden & Shani’s (1982) Study of the Pygmalion Effect 105 trainees in combat command training course. Trainees were matched on aptitude and randomly assigned to high, regular, and unspecified instructor-expectancy conditions. Trainees in high condition: Scored significantly higher on objective achievement tests. Exhibited more positive attitudes. Perceived more positive leadership behavior. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Imagine you are an alien from outer space… Stereotypes Definition: The belief that all members of specific groups share similar traits and are prone to behave in the same way. Stereotypes can be positive or negative. What are the some of the traits/behaviors associated with these groups? Group Traits/Behaviors Gender __________ Sexual Orientation __________ Age __________ Ethnicity __________ Other groups? __________ U.S. Election Causes of Stereotypes People tend to do as little cognitive work as possible when it comes to thinking about others. Stereotypes are mental short-cuts that enable us to avoid the tedious work of getting to know each person individually. Groups: Age, Race, Religion, Job type, What university you graduated from, etc. Sensitivity Training for Border Officers (July 2008) Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA) is putting 500 border services officers through sensitivity training to deal properly with Arab and Muslim passengers. IT Professionals are Not Geeks (June 2008) Conference Board of Canada estimates 90,000 IT jobs will need to be filled in Canada within the next 3 to 5 years. Why? Lack of interest due to stereotypes. “Our biggest challenge with high school kids that are making decisions on what programs to take in university is changing perceptions like the geek factor. That long- held hacker stereotype of somebody sitting in their basement banging on a keyboard is the last thing computer science and IT is all about.” -Craig Boutilier, Chair of U of T’s Computer Science Department IT Professionals are Not Geeks (June 2008) For example: at Laval University in Quebec, enrolment in computer and electrical engineering programs is down 70%. Solution? Creation of “Canadian Coalition for Tomorrow’s ICT Skills”. 70 tech firms including Bell Canada (founder). What will Coalition do? Visits to schools, give company tours, develop information videos, lobby, etc. Stereotype Threat Definition: The uncomfortable feeling that people have when they run the risk of fulfilling a negative stereotype associated with a group to which they belong. Can lead to poor performance and hence fulfillment of the very stereotype they are hoping to disprove. E.g. “Canadians are too friendly” and aggressive marketing campaign. Steele & Aronson’s (1995) Study of Stereotype Threat When verbal ability test was described as “intelligence test”, African Americans performed significantly worse that Whites. When test was not described as such, no significant difference in scores. Steele & Aronson’s (1995) Study of Stereotype Threat Overcoming Perceptual Biases Do not overlook the external causes of others’ behaviour. Evaluate people based on objective factors. Avoid making rash judgments. Identify and confront your stereotypes. Be careful of the “rebound effect”. Sensitivity Training http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtdJ4uUTGdo What are the components of a Sensitivity Training Program? Do you think the Program was successful? Why or why not? Under what conditions would you send a staff person for sensitivity training? Using the concepts of “Perception”, how might you influence the job performance of our laundromat worker? Efficiency Individual Behavior Organizational Performance Next Class Topic: Individual Differences. Read for class: Chapter 4. Assignment 1 will be explained and distributed.